Macromolecules in Cells (BI1011) Sem I 2024 2025 PDF

Sem I 2024 2025 1 BI1011 BIOLOGI A 2. Macromolecules Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 2 cell, in biology, the basic MACROMOLECULE membrane-bound unit that contains the fundam...

Sem I 2024 2025 1 BI1011 BIOLOGI A 2. Macromolecules Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 2 cell, in biology, the basic MACROMOLECULE membrane-bound unit that contains the fundamental S molecules of life and of which all living things are composed. Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 3 Describe types and biological functions of the Learning macromolecules in the cell outcom Explain main structure of es macromolecules and main functional structure in the cell Prodi Biologi SITH ITB The Chemical Context of Life Chemistry in living systems Jennifer A Prescher1 & Carolyn R Bertozzi  The Chemical Context of Life Cellular Mass 98% H C N O P S Sem I 2024 2025 6 What is a Macromolecule ?  Organic molecules that weigh more than 100,000 daltons are referred to as macromolecules.  These macromolecules are constructed of smaller units called polymers. These polymers are subdivided into their basic units called monomers. Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 7 MACROMOLECULES IN CELLS Cells are constructed from a few simple molecular building blocks Four molecules of life: 1. Proteins (considered the workhorses of life) 2. Carbohydrates 3. Lipids 4. Nucleic acids (  hereditary factors) These molecules are also the main constituents of the human diet, together with minerals and vitamins Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 8 MOLECULES IN CELLS : Proteins Proteins: Large molecule Chain of amino acids Chemical bonding Between two amino acids: H bonds with OH Forms H2O Forms peptide bond  polypeptide chain Only 20 essential amino acids are found in living organisms Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Trefill & Hazen, 2007  Proteins are made from amino acids linked Sem I 2024 2025 9 by peptide bonds  Amino acids have – an amino group and – a carboxyl group (which makes it an acid).  Also bonded to the central carbon is – a hydrogen atom and – a chemical group symbolized by R, which determines the specific properties of each of the 20 amino acids used to make proteins. Prodi Biologi SITH ITB © 2012 Pearson Education,Inc. Sem I 2024 2025 10 Amino Carboxyl group group Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 11 Proteins have many roles – enzymes, muscle, etc. Muscle meat, milk and eggs are concentrated sources of animal protein widely used as food, but every animal and plant cell contains protein. Legume seeds are particularly protein rich Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 12 MOLECULES IN CELLS : Proteins Structure of proteins: - primary - secondary - tertiary -quartenary Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Trefill & Hazen, 2007 Sem I 2024 2025 13 MOLECULES IN CELLS : Proteins as enzymes Enzymes Have specific shape & structure facilitate biochemical reactions Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Trefill & Hazen, 2007 Sem I 2024 2025 14 MOLECULES IN CELLS : Carbohydrates Structure C, H, O Simplest Sugars CnH2nOn Monosaccharides Polysaccharides Starches Cellulose: fiber Glycogen Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 15 Some carbohydrates are soluble dietary fibers Soluble or viscous fibers are physiologically active. They decrease uptake of fats and sugars from the intestine, and are fermented by intestinal bacteria into Oats, okra and beneficial short-chain legume seeds are fatty acids (e.g. good sources of butyrate) soluble fibre Viscous fibers include gums, pectins and mucilages, and they can feel sticky or mucus like. The gel-like matrix they form is inulin essential to their function in the intestine Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 16 Not all carbohydrates are easily digested and assimilated In your body, sucrose and some starches Mammals do not produce are converted an enzyme that breaks the into glucose bonds in cellulose, so it is not absorbed but passes through the gut undigested Some animals carry cellulose-digesting bacteria in their gut, but we don’t Some starches are not digested Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 17 Polysaccharides Structure: polymers made up from a few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharides. Functions: energy storage molecules or for structural support: Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 18 Difference between animal and plant in polysaccharides storage and usage: link between structure and function Glycogen, the glucose storage polymer in animals, is similar in structure to amylopectin. But glycogen has more α (16) branches. The highly branched structure permits rapid glucose release from glycogen stores, e.g., in muscle during exercise. The ability to rapidly mobilize glucose is more essential to animals than to plants. Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 19 Lipids A group of polymers that have one characteristic in common, they do not mix with water  hydrophobic. Structure: Greasy or oily, non-polar compounds Functions: Energy storage (per gram = x 2 that of carbo) Membrane structure Protecting against desiccation (drying out). Insulating against cold. Absorbing shocks. Regulating cell activities by hormone actions. Have little to no affinity for water (hydrophobic) Some important groups are fats, phospholipids, and steroids. Prodi Biologi SITH ITB  Fats Fats  large molecules composed of 2 types of monomers, glycerol ( an alcohol containing 3 carbons) and 3 fatty acid molecules. The bond connecting the glycerol and fatty acids in the fat molecule is called an ester bond. Sem I 2024 2025 Prodi Biologi SITH ITB 20  Fats Two types of fatty acids : saturated and unsaturated. Saturated fats: single C-C bonds in fatty acid tails solid at room temp most animal fats Unsaturated fats : one or more double bonds between carbons in the fatty acids allows for “kinks” in the tails liquid at room temp most plant fats Sem I 2024 2025 Prodi Biologi SITH ITB 21 Sem I 2024 2025 22 Phospholipids Structure: Glycerol + 2 fatty acids + phosphate group. Function: Main structural component of cellular membranes, where they arrange in bilayers. Prodi Biologi SITH ITB  Steroids  Structure: Four carbon rings with no fatty acid tails  Functions: - Component of animal cell membranes (cholesterol) - Modified to form vertebrate sex hormones  Precursor molecule for steroids: cholesterol  Male and females: both have E & T  Aromatase enzyme P450: steroidogenesis enzyme Androstenodion Estradiol Testosteron P450 arom Sem I 2024 2025 Prodi Biologi SITH ITB 23 Sem I 2024 2025 24 Anabolic steroids are abused by Testosterone Estradiol some athletes with serious consequences: violent mood swings, depression, liver damage, cancer, high cholesterol, and high blood pressure Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 NUCLEIC ACIDS 25 DNA and RNA are the two types of nucleic acids  The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a discrete unit of inheritance known as a gene.  Genes consist of DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid), a type of nucleic acid.  DNA is inherited from an organism’s parents.  DNA provides directions for its own replication.  DNA programs a cell’s activities by directing the synthesis of proteins. Prodi Biologi SITH ITB © 2012 Pearson Education,Inc.  DNA and RNA are the two types of nucleic acids Sem I 2024 2025 26  DNA does not build proteins directly.  DNA works through an intermediary, ribonucleic acid (RNA). – DNA is transcribed into RNA. – RNA is translated into proteins. Prodi Biologi SITH ITB © 2012 Pearson Education,Inc. Sem I 2024 2025 27 Gene DNA Transcription Nucleic acids RNA Translation Protein Amino acid Prodi Biologi SITH ITB  Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides Sem I 2024 2025 28  DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) are composed of monomers called nucleotides.  Nucleotides have three parts: – a five-carbon sugar called ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA, – a phosphate group, and – a nitrogenous base. Prodi Biologi SITH ITB © 2012 Pearson Education,Inc. Sem I 2024 2025 29 Nitrogenous base (adenine) Phosphate group Sugar Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 30 A Nucleotide T C G T Sugar-phosphate backbone Prodi Biologi SITH ITB  Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides Sem I 2024 2025 31  Two polynucleotide strands wrap around each other to form a DNA double helix. – The two strands are associated because particular bases always hydrogen bond to one another. – A pairs with T, and C pairs with G, producing base pairs.  RNA is usually a single polynucleotide strand. Prodi Biologi SITH ITB © 2012 Pearson Education,Inc.  Figure 3.15C Sem I 2024 2025 32 C A T C G C G T A C G A T Base A T pair G C A T A T T A Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 33 CELL MOLECULES & HUMAN DIET : Proteins  High quality protein supply amino acids in same proportion as human protein: meat, dairy products  Low quality protein: plant proteins  Essential amino acids (8) cannot be synthesized by the Kwashiorkor is an acute body form of childhood protein-  Right combination of energy malnutrition characterized by edema, food can provide the irritability, anorexia, essential amino acids ulcerating dermatoses, and an enlarged liver with fatty Prodi Biologi SITH ITB infiltrates. Sem I 2024 2025 34 CELL MOLECULES & HUMAN DIET: Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are essential as energy source. However, there are certain health complications related to sugar/carbohydrates: Storage of excess blood sugar  High blood glucose → [insulin] increase → glucose enters:  Skeletal muscles cells: Glucose converted into glycogen Only a small amount can be stored as glycogen  Fat cells: Glucose converted into triglycerides (fat) Fat is the main form of food storage in humans Blood glucose high too often, cells become insulin resistant:  Higher insulin concentration needed to normalize blood glucose level  Unable to normalize blood glucose level → type 2 Prodi Biologi SITH ITB diabetes http://collegelifestyles.org/ Sem I 2024 2025 35 CELL MOLECULES & HUMAN DIET: Carbohydrates Anaerobic respiration in cancer cells: sugar feeds cancer  Normal cells  complete aerobic oxidation of glucose  Yields 38 moles of ATP per mole of glucose  Cancer cells  exhibit an increase in anaerobic glycolysis  glucose is used as a fuel by cancer cells  lactic acid  more acidic pH  physical fatigue  yields only 2 moles of ATP per mole of glucose  the cancer is "wasting" energy  the patient becomes tired and undernourished.  Cancer cells induce growth of blood Prodi Biologi SITH ITB vessels to feed the cancer cells.  Sem I 2024 2025 36 CELL MOLECULES & HUMAN DIET : Lipids  Long chain fatty acids (LCFA) ◦ vegetable or seed oil ◦ LCFAs are predominantly stored in the body as fat. Saturated fatty acids Medium chain fatty acids (MCFA) ◦ Coconut oil ◦ MCFAs are sent directly to your liver, where they are immediately converted into energy rather than being stored as fat. ◦ help stimulate our body's metabolism, leading to weight loss. Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 37 Structure of fatty acids: saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated Saturated fatty acid (SFA) – abundant in animal fats (meat and butterfat) Monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) – abundant in some oils (olive, canola) Polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) – abundant in some fish and seed oils (sunflower, soybean) Prodi Biologi SITH ITB  Dietary n-3 fatty acids can protect against chronic diseases ALA must be α-linolenic acid (ALA) assimilated through the diet. DHA and EPA are produced from ALA with Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) low efficiency DHA and EPA are produced by marine Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) algae and accumulate in some fish, making fish good sources of N-3 fatty acids have been shown to have beneficial n-3 fatty protective functions for cardiovascular acids disease, and, in rats, protect against neurodegeneration Sem I 2024 2025 Prodi Biologi SITH ITB 38 © 2014 American Society of Plant Biologists Sem I 2024 2025 39 CELL MOLECULES & HUMAN DIET : Lipids Derivative of lipids : cholesterol  Helps produced  cell membranes  hormones  vitamin D  bile acids that help us to digest fat.  Helps in the formation of our memories  Vital for neurological function  Liver makes about 75 percent of our body’s cholesterol Prodi Biologi SITH ITB budayahidupsehat.files.wordpress.com Sem I 2024 2025 40 CELL MOLECULES & HUMAN DIET : Lipids Derivative of lipids : cholesterol  Cholesterol combines with other fats and proteins to be carried through the bloodstream  HDL  high density lipoprotein  “good cholesterol”  helps to keep cholesterol away from our arteries and remove any excess from arterial plaque, which may help to prevent heart disease  LDL  low density lipoprotein  “bad cholesterol”  may build up in our arteries, forming plaque that makes our arteries narrow and less flexible Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 41 Lipodistroph The Human Lipodystrophy Gene BSCL2/Seipin May Be Essential for Normal Adipocyte y Differentiation Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 42 NUCLEIC ACIDS: Chemical structure Stretches of a DNA molecule called genes are passed from parent to offspring Family resemblance (ayahbunda.co.id, kemlu.co.id, Prodi Biologi SITH ITB 4.bp.blogspot.com) Sem I 2024 2025 43 NUCLEIC ACIDS: DNA technology DNA technology has many useful applications: the Human Genome Project the production of vaccines, cancer drugs and pesticides engineered bacteria to clean up toxic wastes etc. Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 44 NUCLEIC ACIDS: DNA technology Gene therapy A procedure for replacing a defective gene with a healthy one (in vivo or in vitro) Example: SCID (severe combined immunodeficiency) – inability to produce adenosine deaminase (ADA) protein that is vital for immune system Problem: Genes inserted randomly  no proteins made Currently being developed: therapeutic viruses Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Trefill & Hazen, 2007 Sem I 2024 2025 45 NUCLEIC ACIDS: DNA technology DNA technology is used in courts of law DNA fingerprinting can help solve crimes by identifying criminals and victims Defendant’s blood Blood from defendant’s clothes Victim’s blood Prodi Biologi SITH ITB msnbcmedia4.msn.com Sem I 2024 2025 46 NUCLEIC ACIDS: DNA technology Genetically modified organisms are transforming agriculture Golden rice has been genetically modified to contain beta-carotene: this rice could help prevent vitamin A deficiency Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 47 NUCLEIC ACIDS: DNA technology Could genetically modified (GM) organisms harm human health or the environment? Genetic engineering involves some risks possible ecological damage from pollen transfer between GM and wild crops e.g., pollen from a transgenic variety of corn (Bt) that contains a pesticide may stunt or kill monarch caterpillars Monarch Butterfly Prodi Biologi SITH ITB Sem I 2024 2025 48 Next Lecture Aplikasi dari Macromolecules Prodi Biologi SITH ITB