Psysoci Social Psychology Notes Long Exam PDF

A53 PSYSOCI: Social Psychology FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025 | PROF. Roberto Javier INTRODUCTION There are documents of children found in the wild 09/09...

A53 PSYSOCI: Social Psychology FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025 | PROF. Roberto Javier INTRODUCTION There are documents of children found in the wild 09/09 (Europe 11th century ) after many social events such Feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals in as famine, war, casualties created by man. social situations Children were like wild animals A scientific study that involves the methodologies we Documents suggest they were abandoned or orphans employ in science to produce events that will support Children were on their own but survived. They did our claims not develop into adults Investigating how individuals relate It is in our nature to be social, as Aristotle noted “the It is what we experience on day to day – day in and nature of an individual is in fact inherently social.” day out. How we live our individual lives in relation to others Origins of Social Psychology Our behavior is shaped by social influence – how we Transplanted from the Western world in particular think and feel from the USA How we behave is shaped by the environment called Social psychology has to seriously take into account social the experiences of our context We as individuals are interpreting our social situation Norman Kriplet — performs better when there is an while we perceive through the actions of others opponent rather than when they are alone Understanding the thoughts and feelings of an ○ He found that the presence of others will individual are influenced by the presence of others facilitate the performance of an individual. In social psychology, we look at how an individual called: Social facilitation thinks about a political situation, judges a character, ○ Competitive ampota no social facilitation and is influenced by political situations/ideologies. ○ In the US, their social psychology we will Social psychology; if you look at it, you will notice encounter a more textbook definition of some overlap with some other social sciences. social psychology (sociology, anthropology) ○ Three major domains Social psychology focuses on the individual and Social thinking: the thoughts that group but not the large groups; we’re more keen on we have about the self, The self the individual and group subjectivities: how people that we label as our own- pertains think, feel, and behave to the distinction and eye. Social Application in aspects of living like health, beliefs: beliefs that we acquire or education, and other services thought. For example: ideologies, In finding solutions to mental health problems, in from socialization social psychology, even more application in clinical Social influence: for example, settings understanding conformity to dictate Understand that depression for instance is a the behavior of one person. When psychopathology, that results from not only an we define a group we don’t mean a emotional issue or in fact mental or physical if u like population but we refer to this as a [huh] if u take the more physiological and pair, group of three, or group of psychological meaning, neurocognitive functions four. Persuasion is a huge influence Mental health issues are caused by social factors. Social relations: racism, prejudice, ○ While we are isolated discrimination ○ For instance, abuses, maltreatment, abandonment, broken relationships, etc Psychology of attitude ○ Psychological tendency evaluating a Children in the wild particular object of like or dislike PSYSOCI: A53 1  A53 PSYSOCI: Social Psychology FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025 | PROF. Roberto Javier ○ To change the behavior you have to change For example, many of those individuals who had your attitude vice versa formed small groups have transformed society. Ex: ○ Under social thinking Rizal and La liga filipina. Social comparison theory (Leon Festinger) ○ Comparing ourselves with other people. We Asian Social Psychology do downward and upward comparisons. More cultural, we are more relational orientations ○ We make sense of our achievements because rather than individuals of such comparisons we make Begins with relational concepts Cognitive dissonance theory (Leon Festinger) Personality of the nation: ○ Psychological discomfort Kapwa is a core concept in Filipino social ○ When there is inconsistency in one’s psychology. Kapwa: shared self or shared identity cognitions, attitudes, beliefs, unawareness in one’s behavior 09/12 ○ How to remove dissonance: changing Representation and conception of self attitude, beliefs, behavior What is social psychology? It begins with the Ex: smoking: said to cause cancer, understanding of the self u may either change your belief What belief do you have that anak ka ng parents mo? that smoking is bad and causes Construction that includes representation ideas, and cancer or the other mindset is that u schemas is what makes the self. It is not permanent. won’t quit smoking If there is the self, is something that we experience, did you experience it already? European Social Psychology For example; you call your your mother and father More on understanding groups, more societal parents. It is what you call a belief because you don’t Criticized American social psychology to focus more really need any belief that they are your parents. on an individual Identity is subjective The social psychology of Europeans is focused on intergroup relations, so they came up with theories Self about social identity, social representation, and Experience minority influence. Phenomenological Ex: when a filipino wins a national competition you Subjectivities are proud because you identify as part of the Cultural: We acquire from our interactions / the Philippines. Same as corruption society Our sense of belonging to enhance our self-esteem. Nawawala ang self pero di siya wala You favor your own group ○ For example, Alzheimers Self is the acting and active construct The need to secure power often leads to political We like people who share the same values/beliefs dynasties. Trust is a belief For example, in Filipino culture, sharing a meal is a collective experience where family and friends come 09/16 together to eat. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Many major social movements are started by Studies an individual’s social behavior individuals in small groups. How an individual perceives/responds to others How a person perceives/is affected by social situations PSYSOCI: A53 2  A53 PSYSOCI: Social Psychology FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025 | PROF. Roberto Javier How others perceives/responds to us ○ Ex: A child who develops a dependence on How an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors their parents because of their need for are influenced by others sustenance to survive. ○ Our behavior may cause some problems in Approaches in the Study of Social Behavior later life as there may be unresolved conflict Societal level of analysis resulting from interaction between persons ○ to identify links between broad social Neglect, abandonment, abuse forces and general patterns of social Pavlov, Watson, & Skinner’s Behaviorism: behavior ○ Environment shapes individual behavior; Individual level of analysis current behavior, result of past learning ○ To explain why individuals react Focused on external rather than differently to the same social situation internal ○ For instance, in clinical psychology or Behavior is the consequence of the health, where we have to consider personal experiences of individuals factors that influence their suffering (social Learning is a result or consequence withdrawal or social isolation). of an experience Interpersonal level of analysis Kohler, Koffka, Lewin’s Gestalt: ○ To understand a person’s current social ○ Individuals perceive and understand objects, situation and how it is influenced by other events, and people as “dynamic wholes” individual in the environment ○ For instance how one person, in an Contemporary Social Psychology Theories interaction will experience such interaction Motivational theories (Derived psychoanalysis) with another person Learning theories (Derived from the behaviors) ○ Through, initiating a conversation with Cognitive theories (recent addition) another person. What’s the person’s current Decision-making theories social situation that initiated the Social exchange theories conversation? Ex: Interview for a job sociocultural perspectives Theoretical Perspectives in Social Psychology MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis: Individuals have needs and motives, powerful inborn ○ Behavior is motivated by internal drives impulses and drives that direct their behavior; and impulses; behavior is shaped by early specific situations and social relationships can create childhood experiences, unresolved conflict and arouse needs and motives that lead people to ○ He argued that those that compel us to engage in behaviors to reduce the need action adhere to our being as humans or ○ Ex: Two individuals who will develop a survivors like our needs and impulses. Our relationship for a long period. need to survive: like the basic of food, SEX, ○ Ex: Child who needs nourishment from an Those important ones in our adult — habit survival as individuals and as a group. LEARNING THEORIES ○ Ex: The union between two individuals — Prior learning determines a person’s current behavior; to “fall in love” because they have to an individual learns a behavior in any given reproduce situation which, over time becomes a habit, thus repeating the same behavior in similar situations PSYSOCI: A53 3  A53 PSYSOCI: Social Psychology FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025 | PROF. Roberto Javier In learning, the external factor causes the behavior categorize objects, events, people) their perceptions, that becomes a once-done, thoughts, and beliefs about a situation in simple, ○ Ex: showing kindness or pleasantness: a meaningful ways person smiling at you and you smiling back. ○ We put meanings in the beliefs we have in That is a stimulus to make you respond with simple and meaningful ways the same action Principal of organization - people tend to Learning Mechanisms spontaneously group and categorize objects (whole Conditioning - learning by association (classical); not parts) Ivan Petrovich Pavlov’s experiment - sound and Principle of figure-ground relationship - people salivation who readily perceive some things as standing out and Reinforcement - learning to perform a particular some things as just being in the background (attention behavior when followed by something the prominent stimuli) pleasurable/need-satisfying; learning to avoid behavior that is followed by unpleasant Cognitive psychology consequences; B.F. Skinner & Clark Hull → Studies how people process information ○ Explain why one would smile back because Cognitive psychology applied to social psychology - that will make themselves feel good or research on social cognition pleasurable experience Focuses on how a person puts together social Observation - modeling & imitation: learning information about people, social situation, and groups through a model by observation or by imitation or to make iferences copying the behavior of a model without any Examines the flow of information from the external reinforcement; behavior learned through environment to the person observation will be influenced by the consequences of the action for the person imitating the behavior of Types of Social Cognition Research the model; Albert bandura’s social learning theory Social perception research examines the ways ○ A cognitive thinking process is involved. people perceive and encode social information (why ○ Ex: you copied from your parents because we pay attention to some behaviors while ignore they are your first model others) ○ Seeing an attractive person Learning Mechanisms’ Distinctive Features Social inference research examines the ways people Emphasizes that the individual’s behavior is the integrate or put information together to arrive at result of his past learning history impressions and conclusions about the social world External environment (not the individual’s personal ○ Impression of the attractive person putting interpretation of the situation) causes the individual’s together the basic information: the person is behavior a popular person because he is attractive Explains overt behavior and not the individual’s Social memory research examines how individuals psychological or subjective states store and retrieve information about people and social ○ Not your actual experience events ○ The person has captured your attention and COGNITIVE THEORIES you kept every bit of detail. Contemporary Social Psychology Theories Cognitive theories - a person’s behavior depends Cognitive approaches vs learning approaches on his/her perceptions of his/her social situation; Cognitive approaches focuses on current perceptions individuals spontaneously organize (forms, groups, while learning approaches focus on past learning PSYSOCI: A53 4  A53 PSYSOCI: Social Psychology FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025 | PROF. Roberto Javier Cognitive approaches emphasize the importance of If a person is lying they are defensive because it is the individual’s perception or interpretation of a counterfeiting the truth situation while learning approaches emphasizes the there are no variations of truth objective reality of the situation as viewed by a We avoid failure because it has responsibility that neutral observer. goes back to the self ○ But when you succeed self service bias will Contemporary social psychology theories say: ako lang gumawa nito. Babalik mo Decision-making theories: persons are motivated to lahat sayo obtain rewards, avoid costs ○ It is our default to protect ourselves Incentive: decision-making is a process of weighing (beneficial for ourselves) the pros/cons of various possible alternatives, Objective constructicism: you know that it is adopting the best There are people who would not claim responsibility ○ Ex: Will I make friends with this person? for their actions Will I nurture this friendship and make it the Or you can see they ar incomptentent but naniniwala best? sila na hindi Expectancy-value theory: decisions are based on the We don’t like accountability because we are product/combination of the value of each possible defensive alternative and the expectancy that each outcome will ○ Kahit na may ebidensya, we don’t want to actually result from the decision admit Social exchange theories: focuses on the behavior of Same thing if you are unaware that the person you are interacting individuals exchanging benefits and costs following is in error in the side of ‘this’ but why ○ Bargaining situations - individuals come to a would people kept their faith – that is belief. common agreement despite their separate Sef is a belief interests. ○ You will have to be consistent with that Implications in the politics Sociocultural perspectives ○ Which is why it is a cycle Culture is the shared beliefs, values, traditions, and ○ Why can they perpetuate themselves into behavior patterns of groups ○ In our voting behavior it is in the personality Culture is taught and passed on through generations by socialization Culture in self-serving bias ○ Also through education How do they get away with it? Sociocultural perspective emphasize comparisons ○ They get voted again and then the next time, between different cultures or social groups they will set rules that will be self serving for themselves 09/19 ○ Not all rules they do are just but sometimes What is bias? just self serving ○ Tendency to create judgment ○ “Self serving biases” 09/23 ○ There is a default in bias ○ For example: there are voices about gender. Snyder & Swann: When individuals collect stereotypes, they spent What is self-serving bias? energy CONFIRMING their stereotype. ○ Self-serving bias is obvious Confirmatory bias Social Psychology PSYSOCI: A53 5  A53 PSYSOCI: Social Psychology FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025 | PROF. Roberto Javier Social psychology is an empirical science Laws of probability (the larger the sample, the more → Goals of social psychology research randomly selected, the more representative it is of the To provide a systematic description of social population) behavior (generalization about how people act in ○ We take the sample in a large population to various social settings) make such a representative nest in the To establish cause-and-effect relations population ○ As experiment will provide. To develop theories (organize what we know) about How to conduct social psychology research social behavior (why people behave the way they do) Correlation studies - describe the relationship ○ Advance solutions to problems and offer between two or more variables explanations as to why people behave as Experimental studies - demonstrating the causal they do in different settings relationship between among variables To help solve everyday social problems Correlational /Descriptive Research Social Psychology Research Useful in studying problems where intervention is Theoretical research questions not possible ○ A theory can be any abstract generalization ○ Ex: Addictions such as smoking about what to expect in more specific Useful in testing more relationships and in collecting concrete cases more information e.g. Darley & Larane’s Theory ○ Correlational Suggesting that people may not at ○ Provide in-depth analysis all assist individuals who are in dire ○ Doing interviews. need of help in the presence of a lot Third variable problem - the possibility that neither of people variable A nor variable B directly affects the other Responsibility is diffused when ○ The variables are not affecting each other there are others present in a but there is another variable. That isn't taken particular crisis when help is into account sought by an individual when one is in a critical situation Experimental research Creating two or more conditions where subjects are randomly assigned, then observing how they differ in Descriptive research question their responses to those conditions ○ Research designed to gather information ○ This is where we can have control of the about the specific phenomenon in question third factor that may be counted for Provide clear evidence that differences in the DV Research Participants (measured) are caused by the differences in the IV Population (manipulated) ○ We draw from a population from a certain ○ That third variable is accounted for group. Field setting - “natural habitat” there is external Sample (representative of the population) validity as results can be generalized more readily to Random sample (each person in the larger population real-life situations has an equal chance of being included in the study) ○ We don't draw them out of their habitat and ○ using mathematical principles (statistical) there is external validity where we employ random sampling ○ In an experiment on reducing the anxiety of individuals in the presence of others who PSYSOCI: A53 6  A53 PSYSOCI: Social Psychology FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025 | PROF. Roberto Javier would provide a pleasant feeling, they were ○ Selection of Ss is equitable Informed hesitant to such exposure of pleasantness. consent is sought/documented They were tasked to cross a bridge and the ○ Ensure the safety of Ss hanging bride that would cause anxiety for ○ Protect the privacy of Ss individuals. ○ Safeguard for the disadvantaged Ss Laboratory setting - “artificial situation” there is internal validity as there is control over the DV Ho formation than testing Ho (measure more precisely) and minimize the effects of ○ Intensive case study Paradoxical incident EV ○ Use of analogy ○ Hypothetico-deductive method Method of Research ○ Functional or adaptive approach Self-report ○ Analyzing the practitioner’s rules of thumb ○ (subjective states), questionnaires, ○ Accounting for conflicting results interviews ○ Accounting for exceptions Observational research ○ Straightening out complex relationships Archival research ○ Accounting for multiple causes ○ use previously collected data ○ Direct confrontation with empirical reality ○ Set up a time-series by reconstructing Ethics and Methods in Social Psychology measures of the variables Some thoughts on the ethics of research: After ○ Archives as sources of social data as well as reading Milgram’s behavioral study of obedience data from non-reactive measures of the (Diana Baumrind) unobtrusive trace type; methods of scaling ○ Issues: qualitative data (multivariate analysis) Procedure: external validity ○ Hands-on research (method) Participants: humane treatment College sophomores in the laboratory: Influences (ethics); distress, dignity of of a narrow data base on psychology’s view of human persons. nature (David Sears) Issues in the study of obedience: A reply to Baumrind Social psychology’s description of human nature (Stanley Milgram) biased by a particular database - methodological ○ Psychology experiment with humans: database (participants in university laboratory deception, debriefing, and wellbeing experiments are middle-class, adolescent students) ecological validity; Ss-Ex relationship as realistic meaningful context to observe 09/30 obedience Research – systematic investigation designed to SOCIAL COGNITION develop/contribute to generalizable knowledge. Human Ss (subjects) – a living individual about Types of Social Cognition whom an investigator conducting Social perception research examines the ways research obtains data through intervention/ people perceive and encode social information (why interaction with the individual or identifiable we pay attention to some behaviors while ignoring private information others) Institutional Review Board Social inference research examines the ways people ○ Risk to Ss minimized, reasonable integrate or put information together to arrive at impressions and conclusions about the social world PSYSOCI: A53 7  A53 PSYSOCI: Social Psychology FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025 | PROF. Roberto Javier Social memory research examines how individuals Causal attributions store and retrieve information about people and social Causal analysis is initiated by people’s needs to events predict the future and control events (one must know how things happen in order to make them happen). Social Cognition ○ If you want to meet new friends, how do you Casual analysis is the attempt to identity what meet this person you want to become your factors gave rise to what outcomes friend. Attribution theory deals with how the social ○ Therefore, all will have inputs in causal perceiver uses information to arrive at causal analysis outcomes explanations for events; it examines what information Theoretical traditions in attribution: Frits Heider; E.E. is gathered and how it is combined to form a causal Jones & Davis; Harold Kelley; Stanley Schacter; judgment Daryl Bem; Bernard Weiner Core Processes? Common Sense Psychology 1. Paying attention process Fritz Heider argued that a systematic understanding a. What catches our attention given our social of how people comprehend the social world can be environment enlightened by common-sense psychology (naïve b. Ex: Someone calling our name epistemology): the ways in which people usually 2. Inference think about and infer meaning from what occurs a. Making sense of that information around them. b. Ex: A person’s identities, behaviors, qualities, characteristics Basis of Heider’s theory 3. Judgment Person perception processes involve many of the a. Information we have acquired and organized same inferential tasks and problems that exist with and infer from will be used to make object perception (objects are never directly decisions perceived rather its attributes are perceived; 4. We put that in our memory so we can retrieve perception is based on object, context, mediation, perceiver – Brunswik "lens' model). Attribution & Attributional theories ○ We process our sense experience to the Attribution theory is concerned with the generic perceptual mechanisms where the perception causal principles that people employ that might be process in figuring out the senses used in a wide variety of domains ○ Ex: is it hard or heavy Attributional theories are concerned with the specific causal attribution processes that people employ in a Perception of persons is influenced by: particular life domain the person’s behavior ○ Ex: which we experience as an emotion as a the context of behavior consequence for making exmpalantion of how the perceiver experienced the behavior the sudden experience. the perceiver’s own characteristics & preconceptions ○ We attribute our success and failure about how and why others behave the way they do. ○ To our motivation – what would give us a push Person Perception vs. Object Perception Attributional theories: we put to use the attribution People cause actions. Attribution theory: Deals with how the social People have intentions, abilities, desires, sentiments. perceiver uses the information as a causal explanation People are aware that they are being perceived, thus for events are perceivers themselves. PSYSOCI: A53 8  A53 PSYSOCI: Social Psychology FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025 | PROF. Roberto Javier ○ Why people cause actions (intentions), Intentional – there is an ulterior motive or intention ○ With such power is forced his desires and to do the action and uses other’s behavior as an sentiments as well - this person is excuse. sophisticated Justifiable – the action is a defense, thus is just. Common-Sense Psychology Correspondent Inference Why someone behaves as he/she does depends on the Jones & Davis theory deals with how people make locus of causality (where can we locate the cause of stable attributions about the dispositional qualities of behavior?) people; people have intentions and the capacity to act Internal i.e. personal factors as motivation and on them; a person’s action is meaningful, thus is the ability to accomplish an action object of attributional interest; the behavior of a External i.e. environmental or situational factors that person is informative if judged to be intentional and favor or oppose the outcome have been produced by a consistent underlying ○ Ex: he wants to perform he may be inhibited intention not one that changes from situation to he may not be allowed by another person situation. that will not permit him to perform Attribution is made from not the situation or Internal + External factors environment but from the person or the disposition of ○ Ex: He has no intention, he was not asked to the person perform. He is a spectator If they have intention, they have thought about this, ○ If this behavior is observed, it can be located process it in their minds, and are capable of doing it in the person (dispositional) or it can be therefore you would attribute the behavior of the external meaning the situation where the person to the disposition. person is. Jones & Davis maintained that the goal of the Perception of responsibility for outcomes, i.e. it not attribution process is the ability to make only matters what caused an event to happen, it also correspondent inference about another person: to matters who is responsible for it. reach the conclusion that the behavior and the ○ Our actions have consequences intention that produced it correspond to some Heider hypothesized that there are varying levels of underlying stable quality in the person, i.e., a responsibility that determine how accountable one is dispositional. for one’s actions. Imputation of intention (consequently responsibility on the part of the person committing the behavior) Levels of Responsibility: ○ requires the minimum assumptions of Association – a person is held accountable for an knowledge and ability on the part of the action with which he/she is not causally involved. actor (the actor knew the effects that the ○ Association: meaning that he did not cause behavior would produce and had the ability the action but he was there when the action to produce the behavior). was committed. For example, a crime one The person is able to produce that behavior by has committed but you were there making statements to indicate he or she is not ready Causal – occurs when a person performs an action, to give answers or even answer questions but neither intended nor foresaw it. The tool to infer that an intention is based on ○ It’s in the person, occurs when the person disposition or preference is the ANE Analysis of performs the action whether it was Noncommon Effects, i.e., intentional or perceived ○ when more than one course of action is Foreseeability – should have anticipated the possible available to an individual, one can ask: What outcome but have not. did the chosen behavior produce that some PSYSOCI: A53 9  A53 PSYSOCI: Social Psychology FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025 | PROF. Roberto Javier other behavior would not have produced? ○ Ex: he thought the he was a bad person ANE leads to correspondent inferences by towards him. He is perceiving it as personal identifying the distinctive consequences of and intentional. It is intended for him an actor’s chosen course of action. ○ There would be ambiguity because their Covariation Model & Concept of Causal Schemata reactions that may be pretentious. Or is not Harold Kelley formulated attribution processes: very consistent because they behave in this covariation & causal schemata context ○ [Causal schemata: representation in our mind of many things including social → ANE can produce ambiguous conclusions; Resolving the behavior] ambiguity of action: Cues Kelley noted that knowledge about the social world is social desirability (non-conventional) elusive or ambiguous. actor’s choice (freely chosen) ○ We are constantly engaged in many social role (out-of-role behavior) interactions. We are bombarded with so ○ Has to perform much social information that we process prior expectations (knowledge of what is normative every single minute. The social world we are for a situation) trying to understand and explain is elusive ○ What is expected of you Uncertainty prompts causal analysis. ○ It is by nature that the world that we find What leads to Dispositional Attribution? ourselves in is so uncertain Knowing something about the individual's background. Covariation Model ○ Ex: there is a historical data of a person Covariation model applies in cases in which people Having information about prior behavior. have access to multiple instances of the same or Perceiving consistency in behavior or intentions similar events. over time. Covariation is the observed co-occurrence of two events. Biases that perceivers hold that can interfere with an ○ If this is present every time it happens then accurate assessment of another person’s dispositional they must covary qualities: ○ Ex: a person is present whenever this person Hedonic relevance (the impact that an actor’s shows agitation. Then his presence causes behavior has on the perceiver, whether the action agitation promotes or obstructs the perceiver’s goals or In trying to understand the cause of some effect, we interests). observe its covariation with various potential causes ○ Ex: why would people rally behind someone and attribute the effect to the cause with which it who is already known to be a criminal? most closely covaries. Because they know him as a good person. People assess covariation information across three ○ Much more comfortable to keep an image of dimensions: a person that he knew had changed ○ Distinctiveness: (does the effect occur when Personalism (the perceiver’s perception that the the entity is there and not when it is not?) actor intended to benefit or harm the perceiver). ○ Consistency over time/Modality: (does the ○ When the perceiver perceives that the action effect occur each time the entity is present is intended to harm him and regardless of the form of the interactions?) PSYSOCI: A53 10  A53 PSYSOCI: Social Psychology FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025 | PROF. Roberto Javier ○ Ex: Whether the presence of the person who Circumstance something that may asks the question would irritate this person implicate him for doing something ○ Consensus (do other people experience the wrong same effect with respect to this entity?) Entity attribution is the combination of high Covariation model distinctiveness, high consistency, and high consensus Rules of causal inference (only information is a single information. occurrence of the event): ○ If all three of these dimensions has indicated Discounting principle: perceiver discounts any one is high we attribute this to such an entity candidate as a potential cause for an event to the Other combinations of information can yield extent that other potential causal candidates are meaningful causal inferences. available. Covariation principles can also be employed to form ○ If that person is questioned to implicate him joint attributions of causality (attribute responsibility about a bad behavior there may be potential jointly). reasons as to why they are not answering the ○ Ex: to whose responsibility is the agitation questions, such as the people around asking questions, other witnesses are present, or the Attributions provide guidelines for future behavior: threat is behind. Entity attributions produce response generalization Augmenting principle: perceiver gives more weight (attribution to the entity suggests numerous responses to a facilitative cause (increases likelihood of the for dealing with the entity in the future). occurrence of a given event) than to an inhibitory Person attributions provoke stimulus generalization. cause (interferes with the occurrence of a given ○ If the person is present and is agitated in a event). gathering or meeting whenever this person is ○ The likelihood this person will refuse to there. Where both entities are there it would answer questions. What would inhibit you exhibit such behavior. from inferring when they are not answering questions? Like they don't understand the Critique of the Covariation Model: question, language barrier, When given the opportunity, people choose to acquire additional information about the actor (personality) or Concept of Causal Schemata information about the situation in which the act Application of causal schemas to infer causality for occurred (constraints); the three types of information single events (incomplete, one observation, sketchy are not equally influential (consistency information is information): typically preferred over distinctiveness and consensus Causal schema is a general conception the person is least utilized). has about how certain kinds of causes interact to ○ The least utilized is agreement because produce a specific kind of effect. people may not be focused ○ Representation of something in our mind Natural logic model – when people encounter an Types of causal schemas: multiple necessary causes event that requires attributional explanation, the schema & multiple sufficient causes schema. person, the stimulus, and the circumstances that gave ○ Ex: there is a dent in the surface, you would rise to the event are all regarded as potential causes incur what casues the dent. It could be a (Jaspars, Hewstone, & Fincham). huge object falling in the surface or speed of ○ Ex: an object falling up high. Person = disposition Stimulus = questions being asked PSYSOCI: A53 11  A53 PSYSOCI: Social Psychology FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025 | PROF. Roberto Javier Presence-Absence of Causes ○ We can put to use this in clinical setting, Multiple necessary causes schema: multiple causes where people refrain from thinking from needed to produce the outcome. sadness or anxiety, making them understand Multiple sufficient causes schema: accounts for less their emotions extreme outcomes and assumes that any one of several causes could be sufficient to produce the MOTIVATION effect. External Attribution vs. Intrinsic Interest EMOTION Bem & Schachter believe that people infer their own reactions, emotions, and attitudes; that people’s Misattribution of arousal internal cues to their reactions are neither as directly Schachter suggests that people have a need to accessible nor as unambiguous as they usually think compare their emotional state with that of similar they are. others so as to better understand and label their own Bem argued that people infer their internal reactions reactions. from environmental factors that provide cues about Internal physiological cues on which people draw to their beliefs. help interpret their arousal are relatively ambiguous and subject to multiple interpretations. Daryl Bem’s Theory of Self-Perception: Schachter’s Emotional Lability Theory The processes people use to infer their own attitudes ○ Necessary conditions for emotion: are not substantially different from those they apply ○ State of physiological arousal (nonspecific in trying to infer other people’s attitudes. with respect to a particular emotion) People know their internal states (attitudes & ○ Cognitions (which label the arousal and emotions) in part by inferring them from the determine what emotion is experienced) observation of their behavior and the circumstances ○ A state of arousal may occur first, which in which the behavior occurs. then prompts a cognitive search for a causal explanation of that aroused state. Bem's theory & the study of motivation When people are attempting to understand why they Schachter & Singer’s Experiment: physiological perform particular tasks, they look to see if their arousal is subject to multiple interpretations; in an behavior is under the control of external forces (paid experiment, Ss (subjects) who had been misinformed for a job — external attribution) or under the control about the side effects of epinephrine and who later of their own desires (minimal reward for doing the found themselves in a state of arousal would be job — attributes to intrinsic interest). searching for an explanation for their state; Overjustification effect: minimal rewards lead to attributions for arousal are malleable. high interest in a task and that extrinsic rewards for Misattribution paradigm suggests that by inducing intrinsically satisfying interests actually undermine people to reattribute their arousal to some intrinsic interest. nonthreatening source, the exacerbation cycle can be People are less likely to return to a task they at one broken, making them effectively functioning in time thought was interesting after they have been settings that make them anxious. rewarded to do it well. People can be induced to reattribute arousal from one stimulus to another, particularly when the BINER (3RD FACTOR) circumstances are short-term and relatively uninvolving. Controllability, 3rd dimension in causal analysis 3 Dimensions in causal attributions: PSYSOCI: A53 12  A53 PSYSOCI: Social Psychology FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025 | PROF. Roberto Javier ○ 1st Locus (internal, external) child. We think that this other child is older ○ 2nd Stability (stable, unstable) because he is bigger. ○ 3rd Controllability (controllable, Causes are factors that have temporal contiguity with uncontrollable) the effect. People make causal attributions to understand what ○ (A factor is causal if it occurred immediately controls future events. before an effect took place, but not if it took Bernard Weiner maintains that people assess whether place sometime before.) they have failed or succeeded at a task and react in a ○ There is a time factor to take into account or general emotional way (+, -) to that judgment; these to infer the factor in time as causal to such emotions are followed by a search for the cause of an event the outcome along the 3 dimensions. The outcome ○ Ex: infer that the crying is a more recent of causal attribution dictates future achievement behavior and is caused by the older child in expectations and specific emotional reactions; time expectations and emotions jointly determine Causes are factors that have spatial contiguity with subsequent achievement-related performance. the effect. ○ You as an observer saw the child is crying Causes of Achievement: which made you think that it happened in Internal causes: that given space and not somewhere else ○ Aptitude (raw intelligence) is stable and ○ Cognitive psychology, cognitive processes uncontrollable Uses the principle in cognition ○ Mood is uncontrollable, but it is unstable ○ What is observable behavior particularly in ○ Effort is controllable, but it may be either social behavior given the available social stable or unstable information we have we infer what led to External causes: this outcome or consequence. We make use ○ Objective task difficulty is stable and of that information uncontrollable; task cannot be changed. Perceptually salient stimuli are more likely to be ○ Luck is both unstable and uncontrollable. perceived as causal than stimuli that are in the visual ○ Some external factors are controllable background. (e.g., another person’s belief in your ○ The stimulus like seeing the young cher inherent ability is stable and under personal child crying is perceptually salient control; help from another person is Causes resemble effects. controllable but unstable). ○ So the crying may be caused by fearful experience that the younger child PRINCIPLES OF CAUSATION experienced so the effects resemble the causes resemble the effects Principles of Causation (Fundamental Processes of Causal Representative causes are attributed to effects Inference) ○ (people may look at similar outcomes and Causes precede effects. infer that the cause of the current outcome is ○ What is observed or observable in a given similar to the causes for the previous related time and space are the effects that can be outcomes). deduced as what had caused this to happen or to occur Principles of Causation (Beyond the Basics) ○ For instance, you see a young child crying Adults' processes of causal inference include right before this young child is an older understanding of distal or delayed causality, multiple causality, more complex causal rules. PSYSOCI: A53 13  A53 PSYSOCI: Social Psychology FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025 | PROF. Roberto Javier Under some circumstances, when people are faced Kruglanski's distinction between causal-teleological with a causally ambiguous situation, they think explanations through what they know about the causes in that Causal explanation: Which account for what caused specific domain (knowledge structures in defining an act to occur potential causes). Teleological explanation: Why was the action ○ Another circumstance is: making sense of accomplished, i.e., to what end the action of the child you would have to ○ Why was the intention? think through what we know about the ○ [Interesting because this is what we can cases. Let’s say a child in the dark and impure] because it is in the streets and nighttime. the ambioity may be not the second child is a Errors & Biases in the Attribution Process bully but terrified by the darkness Deviations from normative processing surrounding it ○ Error: if what the social perceiver does is Kruglanski’s distinction between occurrences and wrong actions: We are susceptible to certain ways ○ Occurrences (events which are not of thinking about the information completely voluntary) can be caused by available to us. Since some either internal (person) or external information may be created or (situation) factors. manipulated, there could be ○ Actions (events which are voluntary) are inaccuracies or distortions in what always internally caused. we receive. From what the individual may have ○ Bias: if the social perceiver systematically intentional distorts (overuses, underuses) some His purpose, motivation, or goals otherwise accurate or appropriate procedure. The brain is engaged in biased Subtypes of Actions: thinking whereas social perceivers Endogenous: acts that are committed as ends in systematically distort by overusing themselves or underusing it ○ You see someone you like, and seeing the We don't make accurate or person stimulates your muscles and brain to appropriate reckoning thinking show some appetite or a pleasant face. When you smile it gives you a feeling of comfort Errors & biases in the attribution process because you see the person that you like Effects Exogenous: acts that are committed in service of ○ Fundamental attribution error other goals ○ Actor-observer effect ○ For some intentions or purpose or needs ○ False consensus effect ○ Force your muscles in the face so that the Biases pleasant ○ Self-serving attributional bias ○ Smile is intended for another reason ○ Self-centered bias Exogenously attributed acts are less freely chosen ○ Defensive attribution and yield less pleasure. PSYSOCI: A53 14  A53 PSYSOCI: Social Psychology FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025 | PROF. Roberto Javier EFFECTS BIASES Fundamental Attribution Error Self-serving Attributional Bias To attribute another person's behavior to his/her The tendency to take credit for success own dispositional qualities, rather than to situational (self-enhancing bias) and deny responsibility for factors (i.e., dispositional attribution: seeing another failure (self-protective bias). person’s behavior as freely chosen and as People are sometimes willing to accept responsibility representing that other person’s stable qualities). for failure, particularly if they can attribute it to some ○ This person is poor because he is lazy factor over which they have future control, e.g. effort. ○ You attribute that person's behavior whos own dispositional quality Self-centered Bias ○ It is more interesting for us to think that it is Consists of taking more than one's share of in the person rather than in the situation responsibility for a jointly produced outcome than is ○ Ex: Rizal’s argument against the Spaniards one's due, regardless of whether the outcome is in his paper: I made a causal explanation for successful or unsuccessful. what the Spaniards will say that the ○ And those other people who exerted effort as Filipinos are lazy well to make it successful or to have such outcome aren't even willing to say na we did Actor-Observer Effect more than that us individually contributing The tendency to explain others' behavior as due to to the successful outcome dispositional factors and one's own behavior as due to situational or unstable factors (an actor cannot Attributions of Responsibility or Blame see one’s self behaving, one’s own behavior is not Responsibility for an action tends to be attributed particularly salient; situational forces impinging on when there is an identifiable source of an action, one’s behavior are salient). the belief that the person should have been able to ○ If we are the actors we cannot see the self foresee the outcome, the perception that the person’s behaving because we are immersed in the actions were not justified by the situation, and the situation perception that the person operated under conditions of free choice. False Consensus Effect ○ [Parang error ito or bias ito kung ganito ang Self-based consensus: the tendency to see one’s own naiisip mo when you make attribution of behavior as typical, to assume that under the same responsibility ] circumstances, others would have reacted the same Blame attributions tend to be made only when an way as oneself (people seek out the company of actor is seen as intending to produce an outcome, others similar to them and who behave as they do; and achieving a negative outcome was the actor’s one’s own opinions are salient; favors preferred purpose. course of action in responding to situations). ○ This is bias because you always see it ○ Ex: When the test is difficult, all will cheat ○ You say that there is the intetion that — mali ○ Birds of the feather flock together