11th Biology (New Ncert) English -Copy PDF

click here to contact me Rationalised 2023-24 11080 – BIOLOGY ISBN 81-7450-496-6 Textbook for Class XI First Edition February 2006 Phalguna 1927...

click here to contact me Rationalised 2023-24 11080 – BIOLOGY ISBN 81-7450-496-6 Textbook for Class XI First Edition February 2006 Phalguna 1927 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Reprinted q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, October 2006, November 2007, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher. January 2009, January 2010, q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade, be lent, re- January 2011, January 2012, sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher’s consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published. December 2012, December 2013, q The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page, Any revised December 2014, May 2016, price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any other means is incorrect and should be unacceptable. March 2017, December 2017, January 2019, September 2019, February 2021, November 2021 OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION Revised Edition DIVISION, NCERT November 2022 Kartika 1944 NCERT Campus Sri Aurobindo Marg New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708 PD 280T BS 108, 100 Feet Road Hosdakere Halli Extension Banashankari III Stage © National Council of Educational Bangaluru 560 085 Phone : 080-26725740 Research and Training, 2006, 2022 Navjivan Trust Building P.O.Navjivan Ahmedabad 380 014 Phone : 079-27541446 CWC Campus Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop Panihati Kolkata 700 114 Phone : 033-25530454 CWC Complex Maligaon Guwahati 781 021 Phone : 0361-2674869 ` 230.00 Publication Team Head, Publication : Anup Kumar Rajput Division Chief Production : Arun Chitkara Officer Chief Business : Vipin Dewan Manager Chief Editor (In charge) : Bijnan Sutar Assistant Editor : Shashi Chadha Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT Production Assistant : Om Prakash watermark Cover and Layout Published at the Publication Division by the Shweta Rao Secretary, National Council of Educational Research and Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg, Illustrations New Delhi 110 016 and printed at Gita Lalit Maurya Offset Printers (P.) Ltd., C-90 & C-86, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-I, New Delhi - 110 020 Rationalised 2023-24 FOREWORD The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005, recommends that children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986). The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of knowledge. These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching days are actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience. The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory group in science and mathematics, Professor J.V. Narlikar and the Chief Advisor for this book, Professor K. Muralidhar, Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi for guiding the work of this committee. Rationalised 2023-24 Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook. We are grateful to their principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further revision and refinement. Director New Delhi National Council of Educational 20 December 2005 Research and Training (iv) Rationalised 2023-24 RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOK In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content load on students. The National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing the content load and providing opportunities for experiential learning with creative mindset. In this background, the NCERT has undertaken the exercise to rationalise the textbooks across all classes. Learning Outcomes already developed by the NCERT across classes have been taken into consideration in this exercise. Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the following: Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in the same class Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the same subject Difficulty level Content, which is easily accessible to students without much interventions from teachers and can be learned by children through self-learning or peer-learning Content, which is irrelevant in the present context This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the changes given above. Rationalised 2023-24 click here to contact me Rationalised 2023-24 TEXTBOOK D EVELOPMENT C OMMITTEE C HAIRPERSON, ADVISORY GROUP FOR TEXTBOOKS IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS J.V. Narlikar, Emeritus Professor, Chairman, Advisory Committee, Inter University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA), Pune University, Pune CHIEF ADVISOR K. Muralidhar, Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi MEMBERS Ajit Kumar Kavathekar, Reader (Botany), Sri Venkateswara College, University of Delhi, Delhi B.B.P. Gupta, Professor, Department of Zoology, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong C.V. Shimray, Lecturer, Department of Education in Science and Mathematics, NCERT Dinesh Kumar, Reader, Department of Education in Science and Mathematics, NCERT J.S. Gill, Professor, Department of Education in Science and Mathematics, NCERT K. Sarath Chandran, Reader (Zoology), Sri Venkateswara College, University of Delhi, Delhi Nalini Nigam, Reader (Botany), Ramjas College, University of Delhi, Delhi Pratima Gaur, Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Allahabad, Allahabad Ratnam Kaul Wattal, Reader (Botany), Zakir Hussain College, University of Delhi, Delhi R.K. Seth, UGC Scientist C, Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi R.P. Singh, Lecturer (Biology), Rajkiya Pratibha Vikas Vidyalaya, Kishan Ganj, Delhi Sangeeta Sharma, PGT (Biology), Kendriya Vidyalaya, JNU, New Delhi Savithri Singh, Principal, Acharya Narendra Dev College, University of Delhi; Former Fellow, Centre for Science Education and Communication, University of Delhi, Delhi S.C. Jain, Professor, Department of Education in Science and Mathematics, NCERT Sunaina Sharma, Lecturer (Biology), Rajkiya Pratibha Vikas Vidyalaya, Dwarka, New Delhi Tejinder Chawla, PGT (Biology), Guru Harkrishan Public School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi T.N. Lakhanpal, Professor (Retd.), Department of Bio Sciences, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla U.K. Nanda, Professor, Regional Institute of Education, Bhubaneshwar MEMBER-COORDINATOR B.K. Tripathi, Reader, Department of Education in Science and Mathematics, NCERT. Rationalised 2023-24 A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) gratefully acknowledges the contribution of the individuals and organisations involved in the development of the Biology textbook for Class XI. The Council is grateful to Arvind Gupte, Principal (Retd.), Government Collegiate Education Services, Madhya Pradesh; Shailaja Hittalmani, Associate Professor (Genetics), University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore; K.R. Shivanna, Professor (Retd.), Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Delhi; R.S. Bedwal, Professor, Department of Zoology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur; P.S. Srivastava, Professor, Department of Biotechnology, Hamdard University, New Delhi and Pramila Shivanna, former Teacher, D.A.V. School, Delhi, for their valuable suggestions. The Council is also thankful to V.K. Bhasin, Professor and Head, Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi; P.P. Bakre, Professor and Head, Department of Zoology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur and Savithri Singh, Principal, Acharya Narendra Dev College, New Delhi for their support. The Council is also grateful to B.K. Gupta, Scientist, Central Zoo Authority, New Delhi for providing pictures of zoological parks and Sameer Singh for the pictures on the front and back cover. All the other photographs used in the book provided by Savithri Singh and taken at either at NCERT, IARI Campus or Acharya Narendra Dev College is gratefully acknowledged. NCERT sincerely acknowledges the contributions of the members who participated in the review of the manuscripts – M.K. Tiwari, PGT (Biology), Kendriya Vidyalaya, Mandsaur, Madhya Pradesh; Maria Gracias Fernandes, PGT (Biology), G.V.M.S. Higher Secondary, Ponda, Goa; A.K. Ganguly, PGT (Biology), Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Roshnabad, Haridwar; Shivani Goswami, PGT (Biology), The Mother’s International School, New Delhi and B.N. Pandey, Principal, Ordinance Factory Sr. Sec. School, Dehradun. The Council is highly thankful to M. Chandra, Professor and Head, DESM; Hukum Singh, Professor, DESM, NCERT for their valuable support throughout the making of this book. The contributions of V. V. Anand, Professor (Retd), Regional Institute of Education (RIE), Mysuru; A.K. Mohapatra, Professor, RIE, Bhubaneswar; Abhay Kumar, Assistant Professor, CIET, NCERT; G.V. Gopal, Professor, RIE, Mysuru; Ishwant Kaur, AHM, DMS, Ajmer; Sunita Farkya, Professor, DESM, NCERT; Pushplata Verma, Assistant Professor, DESM, NCERT; C. Padmaja, Professor, RIE, Mysuru and Jaydeep Mandal, Professor, RIE, Bhopal in the review of this textbook in 2017-18 are acknowledged. The Council also gratefully acknowledges the contribution of Deepak Kapoor, Incharge, Computer Station; Mohd. Khalid Raza and Arvind Sharma, DTP operators; Saswati Banerjee and Hari Darshan Lodhi, Copy Editor; Archana Srivastava, Proof Reader and APC office and administrative staff of DESM, NCERT. The efforts of the Publication Department, NCERT in bringing out this publication are also appreciated. Rationalised 2023-24 A NOTE FOR THE TEACHERS AND S TUDENTS Biology is the science of life. It is the story of life on earth. It is the science of life forms and living processes. Biological systems, often appear to challenge physical laws that govern the behaviour of matter and energy in our world. Historically, biological knowledge was ancillary to knowledge of human body and its function. The latter as we know, is the basis of medical practice. However, parts of biological knowledge developed independent of human application. Fundamental questions about origin of life, the origin and growth of biodiversity, the evolution of flora and fauna of different habitats, etc., caught the imagination of biologists. The very description of living organisms, be it from morphological perspective, physiological perspective, taxonomical perspective, etc., engaged scientists to such an extent that for sheer convenience, if not for anything else, the subject matter got artificially divided into the sub- disciplines of botany and zoology and later into even microbiology. Meanwhile, physical sciences made heavy inroads into biology, and established biochemistry and biophysics as new sub- disciplines of biology. Mendel’s work and its rediscovery in the early twentieth century led to the promotion of study of genetics. The discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA and the deciphering of three dimensional structures of many macromolecules led to the establishment of and phenomenal growth in the dominating area of molecular biology. In a sense, functional disciplines laying emphasis on mechanisms underlying living processes, received more attention, support, intellectual and social recognition. Biology, unfortunately, got divided into classical and modern biology. To the majority of practising biologists, pursuit of biological research became more empirical rather than a curiosity and hypothesis driven intellectual exercise as is the case with theoretical physics, experimental physics, structural chemistry and material science. Fortunately and quietly, general unifying principles of biology were also being discovered, rediscovered and emphasised. The work of Mayr, Dobhzhansky, Haldane, Perutz, Khorana, Morgan, Darlington, Fisher and many others brought respect and seriousness to both classical and molecular biological disciplines. Ecology and Systems biology got established as unifying biological disciplines. Every area of biology began developing interface with not only other areas of biology but also other disciplines of science and mathematics. Pretty soon, the boundaries became porous. They are now on the verge of disappearing altogether. Progress in human biology, biomedical sciences, especially the structure, functioning and evolution of human brain brought in respect, awe and philosophical insights to biology. Biology even stepped out of laboratories, museums and natural parks and raised social, economic and cultural issues capturing the imagination of general public and hence political attention. Educationists did not lag behind and realised that biology should be taught as an interdisciplinary and integrating science at all stages of educational training especially at school and undergraduate levels. A new synthesis of all areas of basic and applied areas of biology is the need of the hour. Biology has come of age. It has an independent set of concepts which are universal just like physics and chemistry and mathematics. The present volume is the first time presentation of the integrated biology for the school level children. One of the lacunae in biology teaching and study is the absence of integration Rationalised 2023-24 with other disciplinary knowledge of physics, chemistry etc. Further many processes in plants, animals and microbes are similar when looked from physico-chemical perspective. Cell biology has brought out the unifying common cellular level activities underlying apparently diverse phenomena across plants, animals and microbes. Similarly, molecular science (e.g. biochemistry or molecular biology) has revealed the similar molecular mechanisms in all these apparently diverse organisms like plants, animals and microbes. Phenomena like respiration, metabolism, energy utlisation, growth, reproduction and development can be discussed in a unifying manner rather than as separate unrelated processes in plants and animals. An attempt has been made to unify such diverse disciplines in the book. The integration achieved however, is partial and not complete. Hopefully along with changes in the teaching and learning context, to be brought out in the next few years, the next edition of this book will reveal more integration of botany, zoology and microbiology and truly reflect the true nature of biology – the future science of man by man and for man. This new textbook of Biology for class XI is a completely rewritten book in view of the syllabus revision and restructuring. It is also in accordance with the spirit of the National Curriculum Framework (2005) guidelines. The subject matter is presented under twenty-two chapters which are grouped under five thematic units. Each unit has a brief write up preceding the unit highlighting the essence of the chapters to follow under that unit. Each unit also has a biographical sketch of a prominent scientist in that area. Each chapter has, on the first page, a detailed table of contents giving sub-headings within the chapter. Decimal system using arabic numerals has been employed to indicate these sub-headings. At the end of each chapter a brief summary is provided. This brings to the notice of the student, what she/he is supposed to have learnt by studying the chapter. A set of questions is also provided at the conclusion of each chapter. These questions are essentially to enable the student to test herself/himself as to how much she/he has understood the subject matter. There are questions which are purely of information recall type; there are questions which need analytical thinking to answer and hence test true understanding; there are questions which are problems to solve and finally there are questions which need analysis and speculation as there is no one to answer to such questions. This tests the critical understanding of the subject matter in the mind of the student. Special emphasis has been given on the narrative style, illustrations, activity exercises, clarity of expression, coverage of topics within the available time in school. A large number of extremely talented and dedicated people including practising teachers helped in bringing out this beautiful book. Our main purpose was to make sure that school level biology is not a burden for students and teachers. We sincerely wish that teaching biology and learning biology would become an enjoyable activity. PROFESSOR K. Muralidhar Department of Zoology University of Delhi (x) Rationalised 2023-24 C ONTENTS FOREWORD iii RATIONALISATION OF CONTENT IN THE TEXTBOOK V A NOTE FOR THE TEACHERS AND STUDENTS ix U NIT I D IVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD 1-54 Chapter 1 : The Living World 3 Chapter 2 : Biological Classification 10 Chapter 3 : Plant Kingdom 23 Chapter 4 : Animal Kingdom 37 U NIT II S TRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 55-84 Chapter 5 : Morphology of Flowering Plants 57 Chapter 6 : Anatomy of Flowering Plants 71 Chapter 7 : Structural Organisation in Animals 79 U NIT III C ELL : STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 85-130 Chapter 8 : Cell : The Unit of Life 87 Chapter 9 : Biomolecules 104 Chapter 10 : Cell Cycle and Cell Division 120 Rationalised 2023-24 U NIT IV PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 131-180 Chapter 11 : Photosynthesis in Higher Plants 133 Chapter 12 : Respiration in Plants 153 Chapter 13 : Plant Growth and Development 166 U NIT V HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY 181-250 Chapter 14 : Breathing and Exchange of Gases 183 Chapter 15 : Body Fluids and Circulation 193 Chapter 16 : Excretory Products and their Elimination 205 Chapter 17 : Locomotion and Movement 217 Chapter 18 : Neural Control and Coordination 230 Chapter 19 : Chemical Coordination and Integration 239 Rationalised 2023-24  UNIT 1 DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD Chapter 1 Biology is the science of life forms and living processes. The living world The Living World comprises an amazing diversity of living organisms. Early man could easily perceive the difference between inanimate matter and living Chapter 2 organisms. Early man deified some of the inanimate matter (wind, sea, Biological Classification fire etc.) and some among the animals and plants. A common feature of all such forms of inanimate and animate objects was the sense of awe Chapter 3 or fear that they evoked. The description of living organisms including Plant Kingdom human beings began much later in human history. Societies which indulged in anthropocentric view of biology could register limited Chapter 4 progress in biological knowledge. Systematic and monumental Animal Kingdom description of life forms brought in, out of necessity, detailed systems of identification, nomenclature and classification. The biggest spin off of such studies was the recognition of the sharing of similarities among living organisms both horizontally and vertically. That all present day living organisms are related to each other and also to all organisms that ever lived on this earth, was a revelation which humbled man and led to cultural movements for conservation of biodiversity. In the following chapters of this unit, you will get a description, including classification, of animals and plants from a taxonomist’s perspective. Rationalised 2023-24  Born on 5 July 1904, in Kempten, Germany, ERNST MAYR, the Harvard University evolutionary biologist who has been called ‘The Darwin of the 20th century’, was one of the 100 greatest scientists of all time. Mayr joined Harvard’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences in 1953 and retired in 1975, assuming the title Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology Emeritus. Throughout his nearly 80-year career, his research spanned ornithology, taxonomy, zoogeography, evolution, systematics, and the history and philosophy of biology. He almost single-handedly made the origin of species diversity the central question of evolutionary biology that it is today. He also pioneered the currently accepted definition of a biological species. Mayr was awarded the three prizes widely regarded as the triple crown of biology: the Balzan Prize in 1983, the International Prize for Biology in 1994, and the Crafoord Prize in 1999. Mayr died at the age of 100 in the year 2004. Ernst Mayr (1904 – 2004) Rationalised 2023-24  C HAPTER 1 THE LIVING W ORLD 1.1 Diversity in the How wonderful is the living world ! The wide range of living types is Living World amazing. The extraordinary habitats in which we find living organisms, be it cold mountains, deciduous forests, oceans, fresh water lakes, deserts 1.2 Taxonomic or hot springs, leave us speechless. The beauty of a galloping horse, of Categories the migrating birds, the valley of flowers or the attacking shark evokes awe and a deep sense of wonder. The ecological conflict and cooperation among members of a population and among populations of a community or even the molecular traffic inside a cell make us deeply reflect on – what indeed is life? This question has two implicit questions within it. The first is a technical one and seeks answer to what living is as opposed to the non-living, and the second is a philosophical one, and seeks answer to what the purpose of life is. As scientists, we shall not attempt answering the second question. We will try to reflect on – what is living? 1.1 D IVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD If you look around you will see a large variety of living organisms, be it potted plants, insects, birds, your pets or other animals and plants. There are also several organisms that you cannot see with your naked eye but they are all around you. If you were to increase the area that you make observations in, the range and variety of organisms that you see would increase. Obviously, if you were to visit a dense forest, you would probably see a much greater number and kinds of living organisms in it. Each different kind of plant, animal or organism that you see, represents a species. The number of species that are known and described range between 1.7-1.8 million. This refers to biodiversity or the number and Rationalised 2023-24 4 BIOLOGY types of organisms present on earth. We should remember here that as we explore new areas, and even old ones, new organisms are continuously being identified. As stated earlier, there are millions of plants and animals in the world; we know the plants and animals in our own area by their local names. These local names would vary from place to place, even within a country. Probably you would recognise the confusion that would be created if we did not find ways and means to talk to each other, to refer to organisms we are talking about. Hence, there is a need to standardise the naming of living organisms such that a particular organism is known by the same name all over the world. This process is called nomenclature. Obviously, nomenclature or naming is only possible when the organism is described correctly and we know to what organism the name is attached to. This is identification. In order to facilitate the study, number of scientists have established procedures to assign a scientific name to each known organism. This is acceptable to biologists all over the world. For plants, scientific names are based on agreed principles and criteria, which are provided in International Code for Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). You may ask, how are animals named? Animal taxonomists have evolved International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). The scientific names ensure that each organism has only one name. Description of any organism should enable the people (in any part of the world) to arrive at the same name. They also ensure that such a name has not been used for any other known organism. Biologists follow universally accepted principles to provide scientific names to known organisms. Each name has two components – the Generic name and the specific epithet. This system of providing a name with two components is called Binomial nomenclature. This naming system given by Carolus Linnaeus is being practised by biologists all over the world. This naming system using a two word format was found convenient. Let us take the example of mango to understand the way of providing scientific names better. The scientific name of mango is written as Mangifera indica. Let us see how it is a binomial name. In this name Mangifera represents the genus while indica, is a particular species, or a specific epithet. Other universal rules of nomenclature are as follows: 1. Biological names are generally in Latin and written in italics. They are Latinised or derived from Latin irrespective of their origin. 2. The first word in a biological name represents the genus while the second component denotes the specific epithet. 3. Both the words in a biological name, when handwritten, are separately underlined, or printed in italics to indicate their Latin origin. Rationalised 2023-24  THE LIVING WORLD 5 4. The first word denoting the genus starts with a capital letter while the specific epithet starts with a small letter. It can be illustrated with the example of Mangifera indica. Name of the author appears after the specific epithet, i.e., at the end of the biological name and is written in an abbreviated form, e.g., Mangifera indica Linn. It indicates that this species was first described by Linnaeus. Since it is nearly impossible to study all the living organisms, it is necessary to devise some means to make this possible. This process is classification. Classification is the process by which anything is grouped into convenient categories based on some easily observable characters. For example, we easily recognise groups such as plants or animals or dogs, cats or insects. The moment we use any of these terms, we associate certain characters with the organism in that group. What image do you see when you think of a dog ? Obviously, each one of us will see ‘dogs’ and not ‘cats’. Now, if we were to think of ‘Alsatians’ we know what we are talking about. Similarly, suppose we were to say ‘mammals’, you would, of course, think of animals with external ears and body hair. Likewise, in plants, if we try to talk of ‘Wheat’, the picture in each of our minds will be of wheat plants, not of rice or any other plant. Hence, all these - ‘Dogs’, ‘Cats’, ‘Mammals’, ‘Wheat’, ‘Rice’, ‘Plants’, ‘Animals’, etc., are convenient categories we use to study organisms. The scientific term for these categories is taxa. Here you must recognise that taxa can indicate categories at very different levels. ‘Plants’ – also form a taxa. ‘Wheat’ is also a taxa. Similarly, ‘animals’, ‘mammals’, ‘dogs’ are all taxa – but you know that a dog is a mammal and mammals are animals. Therefore, ‘animals’, ‘mammals’ and ‘dogs’ represent taxa at different levels. Hence, based on characteristics, all living organisms can be classified into different taxa. This process of classification is taxonomy. External and internal structure, along with the structure of cell, development process and ecological information of organisms are essential and form the basis of modern taxonomic studies. Hence, characterisation, identification, classification and nomenclature are the processes that are basic to taxonomy. Taxonomy is not something new. Human beings have always been interested in knowing more and more about the various kinds of organisms, particularly with reference to their own use. In early days, human beings needed to find sources for their basic needs of food, clothing and shelter. Hence, the earliest classifications were based on the ‘uses’ of various organisms. Human beings were, since long, not only interested in knowing more about different kinds of organisms and their diversities, but also the relationships among them. This branch of study was referred to as systematics. The word systematics is derived from the Latin word ‘systema’ which means systematic arrangement of organisms. Linnaeus Rationalised 2023-24 6 BIOLOGY used Systema Naturae as the title of his publication. The scope of systematics was later enlarged to include identification, nomenclature and classification. Systematics takes into account evolutionary relationships between organisms. 1.2 TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES Classification is not a single step process but involves hierarchy of steps in which each step represents a rank or category. Since the category is a part of overall taxonomic arrangement, it is called the taxonomic category and all categories together constitute the taxonomic hierarchy. Each category, referred to as a unit of classification, in fact, represents a rank and is commonly termed as taxon (pl.: taxa). Taxonomic categories and hierarchy can be illustrated by an example. Insects represent a group of organisms sharing common features like three pairs of jointed legs. It means insects are recognisable concrete objects which can be classified, and thus were given a rank or category. Can you name other such groups of organisms? Remember, groups represent category. Category further denotes rank. Each rank or taxon, in fact, represents a unit of classification. These taxonomic groups/ categories are distinct biological entities and not merely morphological aggregates. Taxonomical studies of all known organisms have led to the development of common categories such as kingdom, phylum or division (for plants), class, order, family, genus and species. All organisms, including those in the plant and animal kingdoms have species as the lowest category. Now the question you may ask is, how to place an organism in various categories? The basic requirement is the knowledge of characters of an individual or group of organisms. This helps in identifying similarities and dissimilarities among the individuals of the same kind of organisms as well as of other kinds of organisms. 1.2.1 Species Taxonomic studies consider a group of individual organisms with fundamental similarities as a species. One should be able to distinguish one species from the other closely related species based on the distinct morphological differences. Let us consider Mangifera indica, Solanum tuberosum (potato) and Panthera leo (lion). All the three names, indica, tuberosum and leo, represent the specific epithets, while the first words Mangifera, Solanum and Panthera are genera and represents another higher level of taxon or category. Each genus may have one or more than one specific epithets representing different organisms, but having morphological similarities. For example, Panthera has another specific epithet called tigris and Solanum includes species like nigrum and Rationalised 2023-24  THE LIVING WORLD 7 melongena. Human beings belong to the species sapiens which is grouped in the genus Homo. The scientific name thus, for human being, is written as Homo sapiens. 1.2.2 Genus Genus comprises a group of related species which has more characters in common in comparison to species of other genera. We can say that genera are aggregates of closely related species. For example, potato and brinjal are two different species but both belong to the genus Solanum. Lion (Panthera leo), leopard (P. pardus) and tiger (P. tigris) with several common features, are all species of the genus Panthera. This genus differs from another genus Felis which includes cats. 1.2.3 Family The next category, Family, has a group of related genera with still less number of similarities as compared to genus and species. Families are characterised on the basis of both vegetative and reproductive features of plant species. Among plants for example, three different genera Solanum, Petunia and Datura are placed in the family Solanaceae. Among animals for example, genus Panthera, comprising lion, tiger, leopard is put along with genus, Felis (cats) in the family Felidae. Similarly, if you observe the features of a cat and a dog, you will find some similarities and some differences as well. They are separated into two different families – Felidae and Canidae, respectively. 1.2.4 Order You have seen earlier that categories like species, genus and families are based on a number of similar characters. Generally, order and other higher taxonomic categories are identified based on the aggregates of characters. Order being a higher category, is the assemblage of families which exhibit a few similar characters. The similar characters are less in number as compared to different genera included in a family. Plant families like Convolvulaceae, Solanaceae are included in the order Polymoniales mainly based on the floral characters. The animal order, Carnivora, includes families like Felidae and Canidae. 1.2.5 Class This category includes related orders. For example, order Primata comprising monkey, gorilla and gibbon is placed in class Mammalia along with order Carnivora that includes animals like tiger, cat and dog. Class Mammalia has other orders also. 1.2.6 Phylum Classes comprising animals like fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds along with mammals constitute the next higher category called Phylum. All Rationalised 2023-24 8 BIOLOGY these, based on the common features like presence of notochord and dorsal hollow neural system, are included in phylum Chordata. In case of plants, classes with a few similar characters are assigned to a higher category called Division. 1.2.7 Kingdom All animals belonging to various phyla are assigned to the highest category called Kingdom Animalia in the classification system of animals. The Kingdom Plantae, on the other hand, is distinct, and comprises all plants from various divisions. Henceforth, we will refer to these two groups as animal and plant kingdoms. The taxonomic categories from species to kingdom have been shown in ascending order starting with species in Figure 1.1. These are broad categories. However, taxonomists have also developed sub-categories in this hierarchy to facilitate more sound and scientific placement of various taxa. Look at the hierarchy in Figure 1.1. Can you recall the basis of arrangement? Say, for example, as we go higher from species to kingdom, the number of common characteristics goes on Figure 1.1 T a x o n o m i c decreasing. Lower the taxa, more are the characteristics that the categories members within the taxon share. Higher the category, greater is s h o w i n g the difficulty of determining the relationship to other taxa at the hierarchial same level. Hence, the problem of classification becomes more arrangement in ascending complex. order Table 1.1 indicates the taxonomic categories to which some common organisms like housefly, man, mango and wheat belong. TABLE 1.1 Organisms with their Taxonomic Categories Common Biological Genus Family Order Class Phylum/ Name Name Division Man Homo sapiens Homo Hominidae Primata Mammalia Chordata Housefly Musca Musca Muscidae Diptera Insecta Arthropoda domestica Mango Mangifera Mangifera Anacardiaceae Sapindales Dicotyledonae Angiospermae indica Wheat Triticum Triticum Poaceae Poales Monocotyledonae Angiospermae aestivum Rationalised 2023-24  THE LIVING WORLD 9 S UMMARY The living world is rich in variety. Millions of plants and animals have been identified and described but a large number still remains unknown. The very range of organisms in terms of size, colour, habitat, physiological and morphological features make us seek the defining characteristics of living organisms. In order to facilitate the study of kinds and diversity of organisms, biologists have evolved certain rules and principles for identification, nomenclature and classification of organisms. The branch of knowledge dealing with these aspects is referred to as taxonomy. The taxonomic studies of various species of plants and animals are useful in agriculture, forestry, industry and in general for knowing our bio-resources and their diversity. The basics of taxonomy like identification, naming and classification of organisms are universally evolved under international codes. Based on the resemblances and distinct differences, each organism is identified and assigned a correct scientific/biological name comprising two words as per the binomial system of nomenclature. An organism represents/occupies a place or position in the system of classification. There are many categories/ ranks and are generally referred to as taxonomic categories or taxa. All the categories constitute a taxonomic hierarchy. E XERCISES 1. Why are living organisms classified? 2. Why are the classification systems changing every now and then? 3. What different criteria would you choose to classify people that you meet often? 4. What do we learn from identification of individuals and populations? 5. Given below is the scientific name of Mango. Identify the correctly written name. Mangifera Indica Mangifera indica 6. Define a taxon. Give some examples of taxa at different hierarchical levels. 7. Can you identify the correct sequence of taxonomical categories? (a) Species Order Phylum Kingdom (b) Genus Species Order Kingdom (c) Species Genus Order Phylum 8. Try to collect all the currently accepted meanings for the word ‘species’. Discuss with your teacher the meaning of species in case of higher plants and animals on one hand, and bacteria on the other hand. 9. Define and understand the following terms: (i) Phylum (ii) Class (iii) Family (iv) Order (v) Genus 10. Illustrate the taxonomical hierarchy with suitable examples of a plant and an animal. Rationalised 2023-24  10 BIOLOGY vivek krishna C HAPTER 2 B IOLOGICAL C LASSIFICATION 2.1 Kingdom Monera Since the dawn of civilisation, there have been many attempts to classify living organisms. It was done instinctively not using criteria that were 2.2 Kingdom Protista scientific but borne out of a need to use organisms for our own use – for 2.3 Kingdom Fungi food, shelter and clothing. Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more 2.4 Kingdom Plantae scientific basis for classification. He used simple morphological characters to classify plants into trees, shrubs and herbs. He also divided animals 2.5 Kingdom into two groups, those which had red blood and those that did not. Animalia In Linnaeus' time a Two Kingdom system of classification with 2.6 Viruses, Viroids Plantae and Animalia kingdoms was developed that included all and Lichens plants and animals respectively. This system did not distinguish between the eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular and multicellular organisms and photosynthetic (green algae) and non-photosynthetic (fungi) organisms. Classification of organisms into plants and animals was easily done and was easy to understand, but, a large number of organisms did not fall into either category. Hence the two kingdom classification used for a long time was found inadequate. Besides, gross morphology a need was also felt for including other characteristics like cell structure, nature of wall, mode of nutrition, habitat, methods of reproduction, evolutionary relationships, etc. Classification systems for the living organisms have hence, undergone several changes over the time. Though plant and animal kingdoms have been a constant under all different systems, the understanding of what groups/organisms be included under these kingdoms have been changing; the number and nature of other kingdoms have also been understood differently by different scientists over the time. Rationalised 2023-24  BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 11 TABLE 2.1 Characteristics of the Five Kingdoms Five Kingdoms Characters Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Cell wall Noncellulosic Present in Present Present (Polysaccharide some with chitin (cellulose) Absent + amino acid) Nuclear Absent Present Present Present Present membrane Body Cellular Cellular Multiceullar/ Tissue/ Tissue/organ/ organisation loose tissue organ organ system Autotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic (chemosyn- (Photosyn- (Saprophytic/ (Photosyn- ( H o l o z o i c / thetic and Mode of thetic) and Parasitic) thetic) Saprophytic photosynthetic) nutrition and Hetero- Hetero- etc.) trophic (sapro- trophic phytic/para- sitic) R.H. Whittaker (1969) proposed a Five Kingdom Classification. The kingdoms defined by him were named Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. The main criteria for classification used by him include cell structure, body organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction and phylogenetic relationships. Table 2.1 gives a comparative account of different characteristics of the five kingdoms. The three-domain system has also been proposed that divides the Kingdom Monera into two domains, leaving the remaining eukaryotic kingdoms in the third domain and thereby a six kingdom classification. You will learn about this system in detail at higher classes. Let us look at this five kingdom classification to understand the issues and considerations that influenced the classification system. Earlier classification systems included bacteria, blue green algae, fungi, mosses, ferns, gymnosperms and the angiosperms under ‘Plants’. The character that unified this whole kingdom was that all the organisms included had a cell wall in their cells. This placed together groups which widely differed in other characteristics. It brought together the prokaryotic bacteria and the blue green algae (cyanobacteria) with other groups which were eukaryotic. It also grouped together the unicellular organisms and the multicellular ones, say, for example, Chlamydomonas and Spirogyra were placed together under algae. The classification did not differentiate between the heterotrophic group – fungi, and the autotrophic green plants, though they also showed a characteristic difference in their walls composition – the fungi had chitin Rationalised 2023-24 12 BIOLOGY in their walls while the green plants had a cellulosic cell wall. When such characteristics were considered, the fungi were placed in a separate kingdom – Kingdom Fungi. All prokaryotic organisms were grouped together under Kingdom Monera and the unicellular eukaryotic organisms were placed in Kingdom Protista. Kingdom Protista has brought together Chlamydomonas, Chlorella (earlier placed in Algae within Plants and both having cell walls) with Paramoecium and Amoeba (which were earlier placed in the animal kingdom which lack cell wall). It has put together organisms which, in earlier classifications, were placed in different kingdoms. This happened because the criteria for classification changed. This kind of changes will take place in future too depending on the improvement in our understanding of characteristics and evolutionary relationships. Over time, an attempt has been made to evolve a classification system which reflects not only the morphological, physiological and reproductive similarities, but is also phylogenetic, i.e., is based on evolutionary relationships. In this chapter we will study characteristics of Kingdoms Monera, Protista and Fungi of the Whittaker system of classification. The Kingdoms Plantae and Animalia, commonly referred to as plant and animal kingdoms, respectively, will be dealt separately in chapters 3 and 4. 2.1 KINGDOM MONERA Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera. They are the most abundant micro-organisms. Bacteria occur almost everywhere. Hundreds of bacteria are present in a handful of soil. They also live in extreme habitats such as hot springs, deserts, snow and deep oceans where very few other life forms can survive. Many of them live in or on other organisms as parasites. Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape: the spherical Coccus (pl.: cocci), the rod-shaped Bacillus (pl.: bacilli), the comma-shaped Vibrium (pl.: vibrio) and the spiral Spirillum (pl.: spirilla) (Figure 2.1). Spore Flagellum Cocci Spirilla Bacilli Vibrio Figure 2.1 Bacteria of different shapes Rationalised 2023-24  BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 13 Though the bacterial structure is very simple, they are very complex in behaviour. Compared to many other organisms, bacteria as a group show the most extensive metabolic diversity. Some of the bacteria are autotrophic, i.e., they synthesise their own food from inorganic substrates. They may be photosynthetic autotrophic or chemosynthetic autotrophic. The vast majority of bacteria are heterotrophs, i.e., they depend on other organisms or on dead organic matter for food. 2.1.1 Archaebacteria These bacteria are special since they live in some of the most harsh habitats such as extreme salty areas (halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas (methanogens). Archaebacteria differ from other bacteria in having a different cell wall structure and this feature is responsible for their survival in extreme conditions. Methanogens are present in the gut of several ruminant animals such as cows and buffaloes and they are responsible for the production of methane (biogas) from the dung of these animals. 2.1.2 Eubacteria There are thousands of different eubacteria or ‘true bacteria’. They are characterised by the presence of a rigid cell wall, and if motile, a flagellum. The cyanobacteria (also referred to as blue-green algae) have chlorophyll a similar to green plants and are photosynthetic autotrophs (Figure 2.2). The cyanobacteria are unicellular, colonial or filamentous, freshwater/marine or terrestrial algae. The colonies are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath. They often form blooms in polluted water bodies. Some of these organisms can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialised cells called heterocysts, e.g., Nostoc and Anabaena. Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria oxidise various inorganic substances such as nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use the released energy for their ATP production. They play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorous, iron and sulphur. Heterotrophic bacteria are most abundant in nature. The majority are important decomposers. Many of them have a significant impact on human Figure 2.2 A filamentous blue-green affairs. They are helpful in making curd from milk, algae – Nostoc production of antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in legume Rationalised 2023-24 14 BIOLOGY roots, etc. Some are pathogens causing damage to human beings, crops, farm animals and pets. Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker are well known diseases caused by different bacteria. Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission (Figure 2.3). Sometimes, under unfavourable conditions, they produce spores. They also reproduce by a sort of sexual reproduction by adopting a primitive type of DNA transfer from one bacterium to the other. Figure 2.3 A dividing bacterium The Mycoplasma are organisms that completely lack a cell wall. They are the smallest living cells known and can survive without oxygen. Many mycoplasma are pathogenic in animals and plants. 2.2 KINGDOM PROTISTA All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista, but the boundaries of this kingdom are not well defined. What may be ‘a photosynthetic protistan’ to one biologist may be ‘a plant’ to another. In this book we include Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds and Protozoans under Protista. Members of Protista are primarily aquatic. This kingdom forms a link with the others dealing with plants, animals and fungi. Being eukaryotes, the protistan cell body contains a well defined nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Some have flagella or cilia. Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by a process involving cell fusion and zygote formation. 2.2.1 Chrysophytes This group includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids). They are found in fresh water as well as in marine environments. They are microscopic and float passively in water currents (plankton). Most of them are photosynthetic. In diatoms the cell walls form two thin overlapping shells, which fit together as in a soap box. The walls are embedded with silica and thus the walls are indestructible. Thus, diatoms have left behind large amount of cell wall deposits in their habitat; this accumulation over billions of years is referred to as ‘diatomaceous earth’. Being gritty this soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups. Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans. Rationalised 2023-24  BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 15 2.2.2 Dinoflagellates These organisms are mostly marine and photosynthetic. They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on the main pigments present in their cells. The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface. Most of them have two flagella; one lies longitudinally and the other transversely in a furrow between the wall plates. Very often, red dinoflagellates (Example: Gonyaulax) undergo such rapid multiplication that they make the sea appear red (red tides). Toxins released by such large numbers may even kill other marine animals such as fishes. (a) 2.2.3 Euglenoids Majority of them are fresh water organisms found in stagnant water. Instead of a cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called pellicle which makes their body flexible. They have two flagella, a short and a long one. Though (b) they are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight, when deprived of sunlight they behave like heterotrophs by predating on other smaller organisms. Interestingly, the pigments of euglenoids are identical to those present in higher plants. Example: Euglena (Figure 2.4b). 2.2.4 Slime Moulds Slime moulds are saprophytic protists. The body moves along decaying twigs and leaves engulfing organic material. Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called plasmodium which may grow and (c) spread over several feet. During unfavourable conditions, the plasmodium differentiates and forms fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips. The spores possess true walls. They are extremely resistant and survive for many years, even under adverse conditions. The spores are dispersed by air currents. 2.2.5 Protozoans All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or (d) parasites. They are believed to be primitive relatives of animals. There are four major groups of protozoans. Figure 2.4 (a) Dinoflagellates (b) Euglena Amoeboid protozoans: These organisms live in fresh (c) Slime mould water, sea water or moist soil. They move and capture (d) Paramoecium Rationalised 2023-24 16 BIOLOGY their prey by putting out pseudopodia (false feet) as in Amoeba. Marine forms have silica shells on their surface. Some of them such as Entamoeba are parasites. Flagellated protozoans: The members of this group are either free-living or parasitic. They have flagella. The parasitic forms cause diaseases such as sleeping sickness. Example: Trypanosoma. Ciliated protozoans: These are aquatic, actively moving organisms because of the presence of thousands of cilia. They have a cavity (gullet) that opens to the outside of the cell surface. The coordinated movement of rows of cilia causes the water laden with food to be steered into the gullet. Example: Paramoecium (Figure 2.4d). Sporozoans: This includes diverse organisms that have an infectious spore-like stage in their life cycle. The most notorious is Plasmodium (malarial parasite) which causes malaria, a disease which has a staggering effect on human population. 2.3 KINGDOM FUNGI The fungi constitute a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms. They show a great diversity in morphology and habitat. You must have seen fungi on a moist bread and rotten fruits. The common mushroom you eat and toadstools are also fungi. White spots seen on mustard leaves are due to a parasitic fungus. Some unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast are used to make bread and beer. Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals; wheat rust-causing Puccinia is an important example. Some are the source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium. Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and on animals and plants. They prefer to grow in warm and humid places. Have you ever wondered why we keep food in the refrigerator ? Yes, it is to prevent food from going bad due to bacterial or fungal infections. With the exception of yeasts which are unicellular, fungi are filamentous. Their bodies consist of long, slender thread-like structures called hyphae. The network of hyphae is known as mycelium. Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm – these are called coenocytic hyphae. Others have septae or cross walls in their hyphae. The cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin and polysaccharides. Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic matter from dead substrates and hence are called saprophytes. Those that depend on living plants and animals are called parasites. They can also live as symbionts – in association with algae as lichens and with roots of higher plants as mycorrhiza. Reproduction in fungi can take place by vegetative means – fragmentation, fission and budding. Asexual reproduction is by spores Rationalised 2023-24  BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 17 called conidia or sporangiospores or zoospores, and sexual reproduction is by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores. The various spores are produced in distinct structures called fruiting bodies. The sexual cycle involves the following three steps: (i) Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes called plasmogamy. (ii) Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy. (iii) Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores. When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible mating types come together and fuse. In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately results in diploid cells (2n). However, in other fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes), an intervening dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei per cell) occurs; such a condition is called a dikaryon and the phase is called dikaryophase of fungus. Later, the parental nuclei fuse and the cells become diploid. The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading to (a) formation of haploid spores. The morphology of the mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting bodies form the basis for the division of the kingdom into various classes. 2.3.1 Phycomycetes Members of phycomycetes are found in aquatic habitats and on decaying wood in moist and damp places or as (b) obligate parasites on plants. The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic. Asexual reproduction takes place by zoospores (motile) or by aplanospores (non-motile). These spores are endogenously produced in sporangium. A zygospore is formed by fusion of two gametes. These gametes are similar in morphology (isogamous) or dissimilar (anisogamous or oogamous). Some common examples are Mucor (Figure 2.5a), Rhizopus (the bread mould mentioned earlier) and Albugo (the parasitic fungi on mustard). 2.3.2 Ascomycetes Commonly known as sac-fungi, the ascomycetes are mostly (c) multicellular, e.g., Penicillium, or rarely unicellular, e.g., yeast (Saccharomyces). They are saprophytic, decomposers, Figure 2.5 Fungi: (a) Mucor parasitic or coprophilous (growing on dung). Mycelium (b) Aspergillus (c) Agaricus Rationalised 2023-24 18 BIOLOGY is branched and septate. The asexual spores are conidia produced exogenously on the special mycelium called conidiophores. Conidia on germination produce mycelium. Sexual spores are called ascospores which are produced endogenously in sac like asci (singular ascus). These asci are arranged in different types of fruiting bodies called ascocarps. Some examples are Aspergillus (Figure 2.5b), Claviceps and Neurospora. Neurospora is used extensively in biochemical and genetic work. Many members like morels and truffles are edible and are considered delicacies. 2.3.3 Basidiomycetes Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs. They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in living plant bodies as parasites, e.g., rusts and smuts. The mycelium is branched and septate. The asexual spores are generally not found, but vegetative reproduction by fragmentation is common. The sex organs are absent, but plasmogamy is brought about by fusion of two vegetative or somatic cells of different strains or genotypes. The resultant structure is dikaryotic which ultimately gives rise to basidium. Karyogamy and meiosis take place in the basidium producing four basidiospores. The basidiospores are exogenously produced on the basidium (pl.: basidia). The basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called basidiocarps. Some common members are Agaricus (mushroom) (Figure 2.5c), Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia (rust fungus). 2.3.4 Deuteromycetes Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual or vegetative phases of these fungi are known. When the sexual forms of these fungi were discovered they were moved into classes they rightly belong to. It is also possible that the asexual and vegetative stage have been given one name (and placed under deuteromycetes) and the sexual stage another (and placed under another class). Later when the linkages were established, the fungi were correctly identified and moved out of deuteromycetes. Once perfect (sexual) stages of members of dueteromycetes were discovered they were often moved to ascomycetes and basidiomycetes. The deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual spores known as conidia. The mycelium is septate and branched. Some members are saprophytes or parasites while a large number of them are decomposers of litter and help in mineral cycling. Some examples are Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma. Rationalised 2023-24  BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 19 2.4 KINGDOM PLANTAE Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms commonly called plants. A few members are partially heterotrophic such as the insectivorous plants or parasites. Bladderwort and Venus fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants and Cuscuta is a parasite. The plant cells have an eukaryotic structure with prominent chloroplasts and cell wall mainly made of cellulose. You will study the eukaryotic cell structure in detail in Chapter 8. Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms. Life cycle of plants has two distinct phases – the diploid sporophytic and the haploid gametophytic – that alternate with each other. The lengths of the haploid and diploid phases, and whether these phases are free– living or dependent on others, vary among different groups in plants. This phenomenon is called alternation of generation. You will study further details of this kingdom in Chapter 3. 2.5 KINGDOM ANIMALIA This kingdom is characterised by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are multicellular and their cells lack cell walls. They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food. They digest their food in an internal cavity and store food reserves as glycogen or fat. Their mode of nutrition is holozoic – by ingestion of food. They follow a definite growth pattern and grow into adults that have a definite shape and size. Higher forms show elaborate sensory and neuromotor mechanism. Most of them are capable of locomotion. The sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and female followed by embryological development. Salient features of various phyla are described in Chapter 4. 2.6 VIRUSES, VIROIDS, PRIONS AND LICHENS In the five kingdom classification of Whittaker there is no mention of lichens and some acellular organisms like viruses, viroids and prions. These are briefly introduced here. All of us who have suffered the ill effects of common cold or ‘flu’ know what effects viruses can have on us, even if we do not associate it with our condition. Viruses did not find a place in classification since they are not considered truly ‘living’, if we understand living as those organisms that have a cell structure. The viruses are non-cellular organisms that are characterised by having an inert crystalline structure outside the living cell. Rationalised 2023-24 20 BIOLOGY Head Collar Sheath RNA Capsid Tail fibres (a) (b) Figure 2.6 (a) Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) (b) Bacteriophage Once they infect a cell they take over the machinery of the host cell to replicate themselves, killing the host. Would you call viruses living or non-living? Virus means venom or poisonous fluid. Dmitri Ivanowsky (1892) recognised certain microbes as causal organism of the mosaic disease of tobacco (Figure 2.6a). These were found to be smaller than bacteria because they passed through bacteria-proof filters. M.W. Beijerinek (1898) demonstrated that the extract of the infected plants of tobacco could cause infection in healthy plants and named the new pathogen “virus” and called the fluid as Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid). W.M. Stanley (1935) showed that viruses could be crystallised and crystals consist largely of proteins. They are inert outside their specific host cell. Viruses are obligate parasites. In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material, that could be either RNA or DNA. No virus contains both RNA and DNA. A virus is a nucleoprotein and the genetic material is infectious. In general, viruses that infect plants have single stranded RNA and viruses that infect animals have either single or double stranded RNA or double stranded DNA. Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (viruses that infect the bacteria) are usually double stranded DNA viruses (Figure 2.6b). The protein coat called capsid made of small subunits called capsomeres, protects the nucleic acid. These capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms. Viruses cause diseases like mumps, small pox, herpes and influenza. AIDS in humans is also caused by a virus. In plants, the symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth. Rationalised 2023-24  BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 21 Viroids : In 1971, T.O. Diener discovered a new infectious agent that was smaller than viruses and caused potato spindle tuber disease. It was found to be a free RNA; it lacked the protein coat that is found in viruses, hence the name viroid. The RNA of the viroid was of low molecular weight. Prions : In modern medicine certain infectious neurological diseases were found to be transmitted by an agent consisting of abnormally folded protein. The agent was similar in size to viruses. These agents were called prions. The most notable diseases caused by prions are bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) commonly called mad cow disease in cattle and its analogous variant Cr–Jacob disease (CJD) in humans. Lichens : Lichens are symbiotic associations i.e. mutually useful associations, between algae and fungi. The algal component is known as phycobiont and fungal component as mycobiont, which are autotrophic and heterotrophic, respectively. Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide shelter and absorb mineral nutrients and water for its partner. So close is their association that if one saw a lichen in nature one would never imagine that they had two different organisms within them. Lichens are very good pollution indicators – they do not grow in polluted areas. SUMMARY Biological classification of plants and animals was first proposed by Aristotle on the basis of simple morphological characters. Linnaeus later classified all living organisms into two kingdoms – Plantae and Animalia. Whittaker proposed an elaborate five kingdom classification – Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. The main criteria of the five kingdom classification were cell structure, body organisation, mode of nutrition and reproduction, and phylogenetic relationships. In the five kingdom classification, bacteria are included in Kingdom Monera. Bacteria are cosmopolitan in distribution. These organisms show the most extensive metabolic diversity. Bacteria may be autotrophic or heterotrophic in their mode of nutrition. Kingdom Protista includes all single-celled eukaryotes such as Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime-moulds and Protozoans. Protists have defined nucleus and other membrane bound organelles. They reproduce both asexually and sexually. Members of Kingdom Fungi show a great diversity in structures and habitat. Most fungi are saprophytic in their mode of nutrition. They show asexual and sexual reproduction. Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes are the four classes under this kingdom. The plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms. Algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms are included in this group. The life cycle of plants exhibit alternation of generations – gametophytic and sporophytic generations. The heterotrophic eukaryotic, multicellular organisms lacking a cell wall are included in the Kingdom Animalia. The mode of nutrition of these organisms is holozoic. They reproduce mostly by the sexual mode. Some acellular organisms like viruses and viroids as well as the lichens are not included in the five kingdom system of classification. Rationalised 2023-24 22 BIOLOGY EXERCISES 1. Discuss how classification systems have undergone several changes over a period of time? 2. State two economically important uses of: (a) heterotrophic bacteria (b) archaebacteria 3. What is the nature of cell-walls in diatoms? 4. Find out what do the terms ‘algal bloom’ and ‘red-tides’ signify. 5. How are viroids different from viruses? 6. Describe briefly the four major groups of Protozoa. 7. Plants are autotrophic. Can you think of some plants that are partially heterotrophic? 8. What do the terms phycobiont and mycobiont signify? 9. Give a comparative account of the classes of Kingdom Fungi under the following: (i) mode of nutrition (ii) mode of reproduction 10. What are the characteristic features of Euglenoids? 11. Give a brief account of viruses with respect to their structure and nature of genetic material. Also name four common viral diseases. 12. Organise a discussion in your class on the topic – Are viruses living or non- living? Rationalised 2023-24  PLANT KINGDOM 23 vivek krishna C HAPTER 3 PLANT KINGDOM 3.1 Algae In the previous chapter, we looked at the broad classification of living organisms under the system proposed by Whittaker (1969) wherein he 3.2 Bryophytes suggested the Five Kingdom classification viz. Monera, Protista, Fungi, 3.3 Pteridophytes Animalia and Plantae. In this chapter, we will deal in detail with further classification within Kingdom Plantae popularly known as the ‘plant 3.4 Gymnosperms kingdom’. 3.5 Angiosperms We must stress here that our understanding of the plant kingdom has changed over time. Fungi, and members of the Monera and Protista having cell walls have now been excluded from Plantae though earlier classifications placed them in the same kingdom. So, the cyanobacteria that are also referred to as blue green algae are not ‘algae’ any more. In this chapter, we will describe Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms under Plantae. Let us also look at classification within angiosperms to understand some of the concerns that influenced the classification systems. The earliest systems of classification used only gross superficial morphological characters such as habit, colour, number and shape of leaves, etc. They were based mainly on vegetative characters or on the androecium structure (system given by Linnaeus). Such systems were artificial; they separated the closely related species since they were based on a few characteristics. Also, the artificial systems gave equal weightage to vegetative and sexual characteristics; this is not acceptable since we know that often the vegetative characters are more easily affected by environment. As against this, natural classification systems developed, which were based on natural affinities among the organisms and consider, Rationalised 2023-24 24 BIOLOGY not only the external features, but also internal features, like ultra- structure, anatomy, embryology and phytochemistry. Such a classification for flowering plants was given by George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker. At present phylogenetic classification systems based on evolutionary relationships between the various organisms are acceptable. This assumes that organisms belonging to the same taxa have a common ancestor. We now use information from many other sources too to help resolve difficulties in classification. These become more important when there is no supporting fossil evidence. Numerical Taxonomy which is now easily carried out using computers is based on all observable characteristics. Number and codes are assigned to all the characters and the data are then processed. In this way each character is given equal importance and at the same time hundreds of characters can be considered. Cytotaxonomy that is based on cytological information like chromosome number, structure, behaviour and chemotaxonomy that uses the chemical constituents of the plant to resolve confusions, are also used by taxonomists these days. 3.1 ALGAE Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic and largely aquatic (both fresh water and marine) organisms. They occur in a variety of other habitats: moist stones, soils and wood. Some of them also occur in association with fungi (lichen) and animals (e.g., on sloth bear). The form and size of algae is highly variable, ranging from colonial forms like Volvox and the filamentous forms like Ulothrix and Spirogyra (Figure 3.1). A few of the marine forms such as kelps, form massive plant bodies. The algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods. Vegetative reproduction is by fragmentation. Each fragment develops into a thallus. Asexual reproduction is by the production of different types of spores, the most common being the zoospores. They are flagellated (motile) and on germination gives rise to new plants. Sexual reproduction takes place through fusion of two gametes. These gametes can be flagellated and similar in size (as in Ulothrix) or non-flagellated (non-motile) but similar in size (as in Spirogyra). Such reproduction is called isogamous. Fusion of two gametes dissimilar in size, as in species of Eudorina is termed as anisogamous. Fusion between one large, non- motile (static) female gamete and a smaller, motile male gamete is termed oogamous, e.g., Volvox, Fucus. Rationalised 2023-24 PLANT KINGDOM 25 Figure 3.1 Algae : (a) Green algae (i) Volvox (ii) Ulothrix (b) Brown algae (i) Laminaria (ii) Fucus (iii) Dictyota (c) Red algae (i) Porphyra (ii) Polysiphonia Rationalised 2023-24 26 BIOLOGY Algae are useful to man in a variety of ways. At least a half of the total carbon dioxide fixation on earth is carried out by algae through photosynthesis. Being photosynthetic they increase the level of dissolved oxygen in their immediate environment. They are of paramount importance as primary producers of energy-rich compounds which form the basis of the food cycles of all aquatic animals. Many species of Porphyra, Laminaria and Sargassum are among the 70 species of marine algae used as food. Certain marine brown and red algae produce large amounts of hydrocolloids (water holding substances), e.g., algin (brown algae) and carrageen (red algae) which are used commercially. Agar, one of the commercial products obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria are used to grow microbes and in preparations of ice-creams and jellies. Chlorella a unicellular alga rich in proteins is used as food supplement even by space travellers. The algae are divided into three main classes: Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae. 3.1.1 Chlorophyceae The members of chlorophyceae are commonly called green algae. The plant body may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous. They are usually grass green due to the dominance of pigments chlorophyll a and b. The pigments are localised in definite chloroplasts. The chloroplasts may be discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral or ribbon-shaped in different species. Most of the members have one or more storage bodies called pyrenoids located in the chloroplasts. Pyrenoids contain protein besides starch. Some algae may store food in the form of oil droplets. Green algae usually have a rigid cell wall made of an inner layer of cellulose and an outer layer of pectose. Vegetative reproduction usually takes place by fragmentation or by formation of different types of spores. Asexual reproduction is by flagellated zoospores produced in zoosporangia. The sexual reproduction shows considerable variation in the type and formation of sex cells and it may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous. Some commonly found green algae are: Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Ulothrix, Spirogyra and Chara (Figure 3.1a). 3.1.2 Phaeophyceae The members of phaeophyceae or brown algae are found primarily in marine habitats. They show great variation in size and form. They range from simple branched, filamentous forms (Ectocarpus) to profusely branched forms as represented by kelps, which may reach a height of 100 metres. They possess chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids and xanthophylls. They vary in colour from olive green to various shades of brown depending upon the amount of the xanthophyll pigment, fucoxanthin present in Rationalised 2023-24  PLANT KINGDOM 27 them. Food is stored as complex carbohydrates, which may be in the form of laminarin or mannitol. The vegetative cells have a cellulosic wall usually covered on the outside by a gelatinous coating of algin. The protoplast contains, in addition to plastids, a centrally located vacuole and nucleus. The plant body is usually attached to the substratum by a holdfast, and has a stalk, the stipe and leaf like photosynthetic organ – the frond. Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation. Asexual reproduction in most brown algae is by biflagellate zoospores that are pear-shaped and have two unequal laterally attached flagella. Sexual reproduction may be isogamous, anisogamous or oogamous. Union of gametes may take place in water or within the oogonium (oogamous species). The gametes are pyriform (pear-shaped) and bear two laterally attached flagella. The common forms are Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Laminaria, Sargassum and Fucus (Figure 3.1b). 3.1.3 Rhodophyceae The members of rhodophyceae are commonly called red algae because of the predominance of the red pigment, r-phycoerythrin in their body. Majority of the red algae are marine with greater concentrations found in the warmer areas. They occur in both well-lighted regions close to the surface of water and also at great depths in oceans where relatively little light penetrates. The red thalli of most of the red algae are multicellular. Some of them have complex body organisation. The food is stored as floridean starch which is very similar to amylopectin and glycogen in structure. The red algae usually reproduce vegetatively by fragmentation. They reproduce asexually by non-motile spores and sexually by non-motile TABLE 3.1 Divisions of Algae and their Main Characteristics Classes Common Major Stored Cell Wall Flagellar Habitat Name Pigments Food Number and Position of Insertions Chlorophyceae Green Chlorophyll Starch Cellulose 2-8, equal, Fresh water, algae a, b apical brackish water, salt water Phaeophyceae Brown Chlorophyll Mannitol, Cellulose 2, unequal, Fresh water algae a, c, laminarin and algin lateral (rare) brackish fucoxanthin water, salt water Rhodophyceae Red Chlorophyll Floridean Cellulose, Absent Fresh water algae a, d, starch pectin and (some), phycoerythrin poly brackish sulphate water, salt esters water (most) Rationalised 2023-24 28 BIOLOGY gametes. Sexual reproduction is oogamous and accompanied by complex post fertilisation developments. The common members are: Polysiphonia, Porphyra (Figure 3.1c), Gracilaria and Gelidium. 3.2 B RYOPHYTES Bryophytes include the various mosses and liverworts that are found commonly growing in moist shaded areas in the hills (Figure 3.2). Antheridiophore Archegoniophore Gemma cup Gemma cup Rhizoids Rhizoids (a) (b) Antheridial Capsule branch Branches Sporophyte Seta Leaves Archegonial branch Gametophyte Main axis Rhizoids (d) (c) Figure 3.2 Bryophytes: A liverwort – Marchantia (a) Female thallus (b) Male thallus Mosses – (c) Funaria, gametophyte and sporophyte (d) Sphagnum gametophyte Rationalised 2023-24  PLANT KINGDOM 29 Bryophytes are also called amphibians of the plant kingdom because these plants can live in soil but are dependent on water for sexual reproduction. They usually occur in damp, humid and shaded localities. They play an important role in plant succession on bare rocks/soil. The plant body of bryophytes is more differentiated than that of algae. It is thallus-like and prostrate or erect, and attached to the substratum by unicellular or multicellular rhizoids. They lack true roots, stem or leaves. They may possess root-like, leaf-like or stem-like structures. The main plant body of the bryophyte is haploid. It produces gametes, hence is called a gametophyte. The sex organs in bryophytes are multicellular. The male sex organ is called antheridium. They produce biflagellate antherozoids. The female sex organ called archegonium is flask-shaped and produces a single egg. The antherozoids are released into water where they come in contact with archegonium. An antherozoid fuses with the egg to produce the zygote. Zygotes do not undergo reduction division immediately. They produce a multicellular body called a sporophyte. The sporophyte is not free-living but attached to the photosynthetic gametophyte and derives nourishment from it. Some cells of the sporophyte undergo reduction division (meiosis) to produce haploid spores. These spores germinate to produce gametophyte. Bryophytes in general are of little economic importance but some mosses provide food for herbaceous mammals, birds and other animals. Species of Sphagnum, a moss, provide peat that have long been used as fuel, and as packing material for trans-shipment of living material because of their capacity to hold water. Mosses along with lichens are the first organisms to colonise rocks and hence, are of great ecological importance. They decompose rocks making the substrate suitable for the growth of higher plants. Since mosses form dense mats on the soil, they reduce the impact of falling rain and prevent soil erosion. The bryophytes are divided into liverworts and mosses. 3.2.1 Liverworts The liverworts grow usually in moist, shady habitats such as banks of streams, marshy ground, damp soil, bark of trees and deep in the woods. The plant body of a liverwort is thalloid, e.g., Marchantia. The thallus is dorsiventral and closely appressed to the substrate. The leafy members have tiny leaf-like appendages in two rows on the stem-l