1.1. Psychological Testing and Assessment.docx-1.pdf

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Chapter 1: Psychological Testing and Assessment Testing The process of measuring psychology-related variables by means of devices or procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior. A psychological test measures individual difference A...

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Chapter 1: Psychological Testing and Assessment Testing The process of measuring psychology-related variables by means of devices or procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior. A psychological test measures individual difference Assessment The gathering and integration of psychology-related data for the purpose of making a psychological evaluation through tools such as tests, interviews, case studies, behavioral observation, and other methods. Case Conceptualization can be an alternative because assessment is too expensive Individualized – to know different conditions of the client All projective tests are individualized Dynamic Model of the Person – investigate the personality of an individual in relation to the disorder Testing Assessment To obtain some gauge, usually To answer a referral question, solve a Objective numerical in nature, regarding an problem, or arrive at a decision using tools ability or attribute. of evaluation. Testing may be individual or group in Assessment is typically individualized. It Process nature. After test administration, the focuses on how an individual processes. tester will typically add up the scores. The assessor is key to the process of One tester may be substituted for selecting tests and/or other tools of Role of Evaluator another tester without appreciably evaluation as well as in drawing affecting the evaluation. conclusions from the entire evaluation. Technician- like skills in terms of Educated selection of tools of evaluation, Skill of Evaluator administering and scoring a test as skill in evaluation, and thoughtful well as in interpreting a test result. organization and integration of data Assessment entails a logical problem- solving approach that brings to bear many Outcome Testing yields a series of test scores sources of data designed to shed light on a referral question The Process of Assessment 1. Referral for assessment Can this child function in a regular classroom? Is this defendant competent to stand trial? How well can this employee be expected to perform if promoted to an executive position? Outside the referral question – invasion of privacy 2. Evaluation of reason for referral In this step, the assessor clarify aspects of the reason for referral to determine which tests to be used. 3. Preparation of assessment tools and planning of data collection The assessor prepares for the assessment tools and plan which test should be administered first. Psychological Testing and Assessment | Cohen, 10th Edition | 1  PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Example: Referral: the referral concerns the assesee’s leadership ability Data collection: a measure of leadership, clinical interview that includes the assesee’s past experience, education, and training that is relevant to leadership ability. Note: There are institutions that have prescribed guidelines for which instruments can and cannot be used. The tool selection process must inform the test developer if free. Cultural issues must be considered. The assessor must consider the client’s IQ functioning (e.g. which tests should be administered to hearing-challenged individuals?) Considerations in selecting assessment tools: Competency Time Availability of tests Ability to pay Age Referral question 4. Formal assessment or data collection Administer non-threatening tests first (e.g. projective tests) If the client is incompetent to take the test, the assessor may use observation and collateral information for data collection. Scribbles drawn by a child can compute mental age 5. Interpretation of data and writing a psychological report This section must answer the referral question. 6. Communicating the results Ethical considerations must be reviewed. Always give the results to the source of referral Different Approaches in assessment Collaborative Psychological Assessment – the assessor and assesse work as partners from initial contact through final feedback. Therapeutic Psychological Assessment – therapeutic self-discovery is encouraged through the assessment process. Dynamic Assessment – It refers to the interactive, changing, or varying nature of the assessment. It is typically employed in educational settings but also may be used in correctional, corporate, neuropsychological, clinical, and other settings. It follows a model: Evaluation 🡪 intervention 🡪 evaluation Note: intervention between evaluations may take in different forms, depending on the purpose of the dynamic assessment. Psychological Testing and Assessment | Cohen, 10th Edition | 2  PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT The Tools of Psychological Assessment Psychological Test Refers to a device or procedure designed to measure variables related to psychology (e.g. intelligence, personality, aptitude, interests, attitudes, and values). Psychological tests and other tools of assessment may differ with respect to a number of variables: Content – focus of the particular test Format – pertains to the form, plan, structure, arrangement, and layout of test items as well as to related considerations such as time limits. It also refers to different forms (e.g. test administration, computerized, pencil-and-paper) Administration procedures – demonstration of various kinds of tasks, including trained observation of assesee’s performance. Some tests do not require the presence of administrators. Scoring and Interpretation Score – a code or summary statement that reflects an evaluation of performance on a test, task, interview, or some other sample of behavior. Scoring – the process of assigning such evaluative codes or statements to performance on a test, task, interviews or other behavior samples. Cut score – is a reference point, usually numerical, derived by judgment and used to divide a set of data. o Eyeball method – informal way of determining the cutoff Interpretation – can be through manuals and judgment Psychometric soundness of a test – depends on how consistently and accurately the test measures what it purports to measure. o Psychometrics – science of psychological measurement Test users – sometimes referred to as psychometricians. Interview – a method of gathering of information through direct communication involving reciprocal exchange. It takes note of both verbal and nonverbal behavior. It may help psychologists in terms of making diagnostics and treatment. Motivational Interviewing (MI) – therapeutic dialogue that combines person-centered listening skills Telephone interview may still capture behavioral observations such as voice pitch, long pause, or signs of emotion Panel Interview o Advantage: minimizes the idiosyncratic biases of a lone interviewer o Disadvantage: costly; the use of multiple interviewers may not be even justified The Portfolio – documents, such as compilation of writings that may support the data Case History Data – refers to records, transcripts, and other accounts in written, pictorial or other form that preserve archival information, official and informal accounts, and other data and items relevant to an assessee; Psychological Testing and Assessment | Cohen, 10th Edition | 3  PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Can shed light on an individual’s past and current adjustment as well as on the events and circumstances that may have contributed to any changes in adjustment Case Study – report or illustrative account concerning a person or an event that was compiled based on case history data Groupthink – arises as a result of the varied forces that drive decision-makers to reach a consensus Behavioral Observation – monitoring the actions of others or oneself. It is often used as a diagnostic aid in various settings such as inpatient facilities, behavioral research laboratories, and classrooms. Affect – outward manifestations Role-Play Tests – a tool of assessment wherein assessees are directed to act as if they were in a particular situation. Assessees may then be evaluated with regard to their expressed thoughts, behaviors, abilities, and other variables. Computer Assisted Psychological Assessment (CAPA) PROS CONS Professionals must still spend significant time reading CAPA saves professional time in test administration, software and hardware documentation and even scoring, and interpretation. ancillary books on the test and its interpretation. The possibility of software or hardware error is ever CAPA results in minimal scoring errors resulting from present, from difficult-to-pinpoint sources such as human error or lapses of attention or judgment. software glitches or hardware malfunction. Leaves those testtakers at a disadvantage who are Assures standardized test administration to all unable testtakers to employ familiar test-taking strategies (previewing with little, if any, variation in test administration test, skipping questions, going back to previous procedures question, etc.). Yields standardized interpretation of findings due to Interpretation of findings based on a set, unitary elimination of unreliability traceable to differing points perspective may not be optimal; interpretation could of view in professional judgment. profit from alternative viewpoints. Computers lack the flexibility of humans to recognize Computers’ capacity to combine data according to the exception to a rule in the context of the “big rules is more accurate than that of humans. picture.” Use of non-professionals leaves diminished, if any, Nonprofessional assistants can be used in the test opportunity for the professional to observe the administration process, and the test can typically be assessee’s test taking behavior and note any unusual administered to groups of testtakers in one sitting. extra-test conditions that may have affected responses. Profit-driven non-professionals may also create and Professional groups such as APA develop guidelines dis tribute tests with little regard for professional and standards for use of CAPA products. guidelines and standards. Paper-and-pencil tests may be converted to CAPA The use of paper-and-pencil tests that have been products with consequential advantages, such as a converted for computer administration raises shorter time between the administration of the test questions about the equivalence of the original test and its scoring and interpretation. and its converted form. Security of CAPA products can be maintained not Security of CAPA products can be breached by only by traditional means (such as locked filing computer hackers, and integrity of data can be altered cabinets) but by high-tech electronic products (such or destroyed by untoward events such as introduction as firewalls). of computer viruses. Computers can automatically tailor test content and Not all testtakers take the same test or have the same length based on responses of testtakers. test-taking experience. Advantages Greater access to potential testtakers Quicker scoring and interpretation Cost-effective Psychological Testing and Assessment | Cohen, 10th Edition | 4  PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Disadvantage: test-client integrity, score inflation Local or Central processing – onsite/online Simple or Extended Scoring Report – listing of scores/statistical analysis Interceptive report – inclusion of the numerical or narrative interpretive statements in the report; little interpretation, such as low, high Consultative report – provides expert opinion on the analysis of date Integrative report – integrates data from test and other sources Testtakers’ variables that may affect the test results: The amount of test anxiety The extent to which they understand and agree with the rationale for the assessment Their capacity and willingness to cooperate with the examiner or to comprehend written test instructions The amount of physical pain or emotional distress The amount of physical discomfort brought on by physical conditions The extent to which they are alert and wide awake The extent to which they are predisposed to agreeing or disagreeing when presented with stimulus statements The extent to which they have received prior coaching The importance they may attribute to portraying themselves in a goo (or bad) light The extent to which they are “lucky” and “can beat the odds” on a multiple- choice achievement test Psychological Autopsy – a reconstruction of a deceased individual’s psychological profile on the bases or archival records, artifacts, and interviews previously conducted with the deceased assessee or with people who knew the client. Assessment Rules Review the measure’s standards and procedures Review the ethical guidelines The test user must be familiar with the test materials and procedures and must have at the test site all the materials needed to properly administer the test. Ensure the suitableness and conduciveness of the testing room Build Rapport Safeguard the test protocols Assessment of people with disabilities – alternate assessment through accommodation or adaptation of a test and its whole procedures It includes enlargement of the text, sign language, extended evaluation time, braille Disadvantage of alternate assessment is that some testtakers are not better in using their own instruments Alternative assessment – evaluative or diagnostic procedure that varies from the usual, customary, or standardized way a measurement is derived, either by virtue of some special accommodation made to the assessee or by means of alternative methods designed to measure the same variables Psychological Testing and Assessment | Cohen, 10th Edition | 5  PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Types of settings Clinical settings – includes hospitals, inpatient and outpatient clinics, private-practice consulting rooms, schools, and other institutions. Assessment tools are used to help screen for or diagnose behavior problems. Education settings – assessment on schools to identify the adaptability of the student Informal evaluation – evaluation based on the opinions of the teachers Counseling settings – includes schools, prisons, and governmental or privately owned institutions. The goal of assessments in this setting is improvements in adjustment, productivity, or related variable. Geriatric settings – assessment primarily evaluates cognitive, psychological, adaptive, or other functioning. At issue is quality of life. Business and military settings – decisions regarding careers of personnel are made with a variety of achievement, aptitude, interest, motivational, and other tests. Government and organizational credentialing – include governmental licensing, certification, or general credentialing of professionals (e.g., attorneys, physicians, and psychologists) How are Assessments Conducted? Ethical guidelines Protocol Testing environment Information on Tests Test catalogues – catalogues distributed by publishers of tests. Usually brief, and un-critical, descriptions of tests. Test manuals – detailed information concerning the development of a particular test and technical information. Reference volumes – reference volumes like the Mental Measurements Yearbook or Tests in Print provide detailed information on many tests. Journal articles – contain reviews of a test, updated or independent studies of its psychometric soundness, or examples of how the instrument was used in either research or an applied context. Online databases – Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) contains a wealth of resources and news about tests, testing, and assessment. There are abstracts of articles, original articles, and links to other useful websites. The American Psychological Association (APA) has several databases including PsycINFO, ClinPSYC, PsycARTICLES, and PsycSCAN. Other sources – directory of Unpublished Experimental Mental Measures and Tests in Microfiche. Psychological Testing and Assessment | Cohen, 10th Edition | 6  PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Also, university libraries provide access to online databases such as PsycINFO and full-text articles. Phases of Assessment Evaluating the Referral Question Not always the same as presenting problem Why (PURPOSE: legal, educational, clinical? Ask the referral source) is the client here now (progression of events, mother wounds) Uncover hidden agendas, unspoken expectations, and complex interpersonal relationships, as well as explain the specific limitations of psychological tests o Assets and limitations of psychological tests 🡪 clarify the requests they receive o Contact the referral source at different stages in the assessment process Acquiring knowledge relating to the content of the problem Consider the problem, the adequacy of the tests you will use, and the specific applicability of the test to an individual’s unique situation Competence in merely administering and scoring tests is insufficient to conduct effective assessment Contextualize the problem Data Collection May come from a wide variety of sources, the most frequent of which are test scores, personal history, behavioral observations, and interview data Obtain from school records, previous psychological observations, medical records, police reports, or discuss the client with parents or teachers Interpreting the Data Description of the client’s present level of functioning Considerations relating to etiology Prognosis Treatment recommendations Clinicians should also pay careful attention to research on, and the implications of, incremental validity and continually be aware of the limitations and possible inaccuracies involved in clinical judgment Steps in Interpreting the Data 1. Initial Data Collection 2. Development of Inferences 3. Reject/Modify/Accept Inferences 4. Develop and Integrate Hypothesis – make final diagnosis 5. Dynamic Model of the Person 6. Situational Variables – context of the individual 7. Prediction of Behavior Scoring Cumulative – the higher the score; the higher the degree (e.g., bipolar: pessimism vs optimism) Ipsative – two different constructs in the same item (not bipolar, EPPS); both constructs may be high Categorical/class – identifying types (e.g., parenting styles) Methods Psychological Testing and Assessment | Cohen, 10th Edition | 7  PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Comparative – comparing, choosing the best Absolute – with cut off; entrance exams Other/Random Notes Typical – usually does No right/wrong answers Personality tests How honest the client can be? Maximum – right/wrong Achievement How fast can the client finish ** check CHED CMO 34, Series of 2017, Annex B Levels of Tests Level A – achievement, teacher, no licensure requirement Level B – tests that can be handled by Psychometricians o Personality inventories can be handled by level B Level C – Individualized, projective, diagnostic, o for Psychologists only ** Psychiatrists cannot handle psychological tests Test Classification Methods: Are they tests of maximal performance, behavior observation, or self-report? Maximal – requires testtakers to perform a well-defined task, and testtakers do their best (must score high) Behavior – observes how people typically respond in a particular context o Observer is creating the score Self-report – require testtakers to describe how they feel, their opinions, beliefs o Testtakers create their score Approach Nomothetic – similarities (e.g., stages of development) Idiographic – uniqueness Psychological Testing and Assessment | Cohen, 10th Edition | 8