Ethics and CSR - Business I / 01-02 - PDF

Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama ENNEG310 Business I / 01-02 Monday & Wednesday, 11:00 – 12:20 / 12:30 – 13:50 Alejandra Vasquez Delama [email protected] Negocios I 1 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasq...

Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama ENNEG310 Business I / 01-02 Monday & Wednesday, 11:00 – 12:20 / 12:30 – 13:50 Alejandra Vasquez Delama [email protected] Negocios I 1 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility 2 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Overview 1. Introduction and Case 2. Stakeholder theory 3. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 4. Ethics and moral dilemmas 5. Legal foundations of ethical behavior 6. What MNEs can do: Codes of Conduct Negocios I 3 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Introduction & Case To what extent are multinational corporations responsible for ensuring that workers’ rights are respected? To what extent must multinational corporation stick to environmental protection? To which extent are MNC responsible for their suppliers? Etc … Negocios I 4 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama CSR at Apple Source: Myers, C. (2012). Corporate Social Responsibility in the Consumer Electronics Industry: A Case Study of Apple Inc. Negocios I 5 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Apple Apple’s products are manufactured in 748 different locations More than 600 manufacturing locations are in Asia, of which 331 are in mainland China 🡪 has allowed Apple to minimize the labor costs According to estimates by the University of Manchester, assembling iPhones in China has allowed Apple to reduce the cost of each iPhone to 47% of what it would cost to assemble them in the United States Major suppliers: Asustek and Foxconn Negocios I 6 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama In 2006, reporters found that Apple suppliers maintain dormitories on factory grounds to allow almost immediate mobilization of thousands of workers and rapid adjustments to its assembly lines https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-401234/The-stark-reality-iPods- Chinese-factories.html Negocios I 7 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama “The first factory we visited was in Longhua, just 20 miles from Hong Kong. Run by Taiwanese company Foxconn, it is the original and largest plant to be built in mainland China. It's a sprawling place where 200,000 people work and sleep – meaning this iPod City has a population bigger than Newcastle’s. Arriving at the gates, the visitor is initially struck by the giant billboards inviting anyone over 16, the legal working age here, to apply for jobs. […] Workers live in dormitories on the site, 100 to a room, arriving with a few possessions and a bucket to wash their clothes. The accommodation may be free, but it comes at a cost – no one outside the plant is allowed to visit the workers. Zang Lan, 21, from Zhengzhou in central China, has worked on the Apple assembly line for a month. Her 15-hour days earn her £27 a month – about half the wage weavers earned in Liverpool and Manchester in 1805, allowing for inflation. This is low, even for China, but Zhengzhou is a particularly poor region so workers would accept even less. […]” Negocios I 8 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Negocios I 10 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The Wintek case In 2009, Wintek, one of Apple’s suppliers that produced the touchscreens, began using n- hexane at its East China plant to speed up production after receiving a large order N-hexane acts as a better cleaning agent than alcohol, evaporating more quickly after use, it is also a narcotic that attacks the nervous system of those exposed to it Wintek pressured the workers that were affected to resign and absolve the company of future liability Wintek offered cash settlements or, in the case that the workers refused, insisted on them working longer hours despite their impairments Negocios I 11 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Foxconn https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/jun/18/fo xconn-life-death-forbidden-city-longhua-suicide-apple- iphone-brian-merchant-one-device-extract Negocios I 12 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The Foxconn case First scandal: Child labor Second scandal: Suicides China’s legal working age is 16, however, Between January and November 2010, 17 Foxconn hired children under age 16 Foxconn workers attempted suicide, of student interns were paid about $244 a whom 13 were successful month and were forced to work overtime until they completed their assigned tasks China’s labor law, the maximum number of overtime hours an employee is allowed to work is 36 hours per month, but some employees reported being forced to work 80 to 100 hours per month, sometimes without pay Negocios I 13 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The Foxconn case fast-paced assembly process required workers to finish each procedure within two seconds they were not allowed to make any unnecessary movements such as talking, walking around, or even smiling workers reported that they had passed out during work 24 percent of female workers reported experiencing menstrual disorders because of the stress from the harsh working conditions “although the salary here is better than at many other sweatshops where I worked before, you can never find someone to air your grievances with because everyone is isolated here, and you'll gradually become insane.” 🡪 Foxconn put into place several countermeasures against future suicide attempts: suicide prevention nets around its buildings, counsellors and monks that provide emotional and spiritual guidance to its workers, and even “no- suicide pledges” as part of the company’s employment contracts Negocios I 14 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Apple‘s reactions Establishment of a “Supplier Code of Conduct” in 2005 Workers and Manager Training on worker-management communication, anti-harassment policies, and worker protections Elimination of Safety Hazards, Excessive Overtime, and Child Labor trained supplier personnel on the use of personal protection equipment, chemical safety, and control of hazardous energy stored in factory equipment In 2011, Apple began tracking the number of hours worked by factory employees, contacting the suppliers as they found code of conduct violations to address the issue Third-Party Oversight In 2012 Apple joined the Fair Labor Association (FLA) to oversee the factories in China aims to reduce worker turnover rates and wastage, improve energy efficiency, and facilitate dialogue between workers and managers Negocios I 15 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Criticisms Although Apple joined the FLA, critics argue that the FLA has done little to improve working conditions under Apple’s suppliers and that Apple’s membership merely serves as window dressing to maintain its corporate image Example: FLA required Foxconn to increase the number of workers in a union leadership committee to at least three, but did not specify any requirements for the ratio of workers to management within the committee or how the workers were elected. The committee consists of three workers and 29 managers and the way the committee operates has hardly changed from how it was before the addition of the workers 🡪 Questionable whether Apple is truly committed to advancing workers’ rights and creating safer working conditions or is only interested in implementing just enough reforms to maintain a good image Negocios I 16 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama https://www.apple.com/supplier-responsibility/ Negocios I 17 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Overview 1. Introduction and Case 2. Stakeholder theory 3. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 4. Ethics and moral dilemmas 5. Legal foundations of ethical behavior 6. What MNEs can do: Codes of Conduct Negocios I 18 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Shareholder vs. Stakeholder Shareholders are any party, either A stakeholder is a party that has an an individual, company, or interest in the company’s success institution, that owns at least one or failure. A stakeholder can affect share of a company and, therefore, or be affected by the company’s has a financial interest in its policies and objectives. profitability Stakeholders can either be internal or external. https://corporatefinanceinstitute.com/resources/knowledge/finance/stakeholder-vs-shareholder/ Negocios I 19 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Stakeholder theory A company must create value for all stakeholders, not just shareholders Stresses the network character and interconnectedness of various stakeholders which affect and are affected by the firm But: Stakeholder (sometimes) pursue different goals and have different interests Source: Wikimedia Commons Negocios I 20 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Stakeholder theory Shareholders: want additional sales and increased productivity Employees want safer workplaces and higher compensation. Customers want higher-quality products at lower prices. Society would like to see more jobs, increased corporate taxes, more corporate support for social services, and more trustworthy behavior on the part of corporate executives 🡪 Companies must balance their interests to be successful Negocios I 21 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Cause-and-effect relationships Do MNE make harm or good to foreign countries? They do harm because of… They do good because of… inequitable income distribution higher tax revenues political corruption increased levels of employment environmental debasement Increased trade and exports social deprivation greater innovation Examples? Examples? Negocios I 22 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Overview 1. Introduction and Case 2. Stakeholder theory 3. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 4. Ethics and moral dilemmas 5. Legal foundations of ethical behavior 6. What MNEs can do: Codes of Conduct Negocios I 23 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is the idea that a business has a responsibility to the society that exists around it Includes several measures and practices to respond to this responsibility on multiple levels No uniform definition Relies most-often on the triple bottom line Negocios I 24 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The triple bottom line Framework of sustainability on three dimensions: social environmental (ecological) financial Negocios I 25 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Why companies care about CSR Companies care about their image and reputation They care about: develop competitive advantage avoid being perceived as irresponsible 🡪 Unethical behavior can result in serious sanctions against companies and legal action against individuals Negocios I 26 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The reasons for CSR: Three types of pressure Origin: Institutional theory (Meyer & Rowan, 1977; DiMaggio & Powell, 1983) Companies operate under three types of pressure: Coercive pressure Normative pressure Mimetic pressure MNC Negocios I 27 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Companies generally experience four motivations for acting responsibly: 1. Legality: Unethical and irresponsible behavior can result in legal problems, especially in areas as financial mismanagement, bribery, and product safety. 2. Consumer behavior: consumers may boycott the company 3. Employee morale: Unethical behavior can affect employee morale. 4. Image: You never know when bad publicity is going to cost you sales. Negocios I 28 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Four forms of CSR 1. CSR is practiced for its own sake: Firm expects nothing back from their CSR activities and they become socially responsible because ‘that is the noble way for corporations to behave’. (best way) 2. CSR is undertaken for ‘enlightened self-interest’ in which firms undertake CSR with the belief that CSR pays. 3. CSR as a sound investment: the stock market reacts to firms’ actions and socially responsible behaviors will be rewarded by the market 4. CSR is practiced to avoid interference from external political influences (legislation) Mintzberg (1983) Negocios I 29 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama McDonald‘s Negocios I 30 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama “Cada color hace que los consumidores asocien de forma inconsciente los colores a diferentes realidades y a diferentes valores, de hecho está lleno de bibliografía que habla sobre la relación que tienen los colores con distintos valores, sensaciones y emociones. No es pensamiento mágico y no es tampoco una realidad infundada: los significados de los colores se basan en criterios culturales y en elementos subconscientes que hacen que cuando se vea un color concreto se sienta o se perciba una realidad concreta. El verde, por ejemplo, se asocia rápidamente a la naturaleza y ayuda a convencer a los consumidores de que lo que tienen delante no solo es más natural y orgánico, sino que es mucho más fresco. “ http://www.integrago.com/blog/por-que-mcdonalds-esta-cambiando-sus-colores-de-toda-la-vida/ Negocios I 31 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Overview 1. Introduction and Case 2. Stakeholder theory 3. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 4. Ethics and moral dilemmas 5. Legal foundations of ethical behavior 6. What MNEs can do: Codes of Conduct Negocios I 32 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The trolley problem The trolley problem is a thought experiment in ethics about a fictional scenario in which an onlooker has the choice to save 5 people in danger of being hit by a trolley, by diverting the trolley to kill just 1 person. WHAT WOULD YOU DO? Negocios I 33 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The teleological approach = decisions are based on the consequences of the action Utilitarianism Deontological approach consequences-based theory of moral asserts that we make moral judgments reasoning or engage in moral reasoning “an action is right if it produces, or if it tends independent of consequences to produce, the greatest amount of good for implies that actions are right or wrong the greatest number of people affected by per se. the action. Otherwise, the action is wrong.” Negocios I 34 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Moral Dilemmas Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The Moral Machine Source: Awad, E., et al. (2018). The Moral Machine experiment. Nature, 563, 59–64 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The Moral Machine Rapid development of artificial intelligence leads to concerns about how machines will make (moral) decisions Decisions about the ethical principles that will guide autonomous vehicles cannot be left solely to either the engineers or the ethicists https://medium.com/the-mission/the-road-ahead- autonomous-vehicles-startup-ecosystem- 37 3c91d546673d Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/19/technology/uber-driverless-fatality.html 38 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The Moral Machine: Situation You are an engineer at Google Inc. and you are designing autonomous cars. Artificial intelligence has developed quite a lot during the last years, however you still face some dilemmas when programming the cars. Sometimes situations in real life are more complex than in the laboratory. There are a lot of people on the streets, people jaywalk by red lights, there are young and elderly, men and women, etc. Possibly, when facing a crash and the car has no time to stop on time, the machine has to decide what to do. These decisions are based on the programming by engineers and informatics. Imagine an autonomous car is about to crash, and cannot find a trajectory that would save everyone. However, although facing this dilemma, you have to choose… Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The Moral Machine Scenario A: There are three elderly people just in front of the car; and two children next to them. Should it either: a) Crash into the elderly people and spare the children or b) Swerve into the children and save the elderly people? 40 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The Moral Machine Scenario B: A rich owner of a company and an older, poorer man who has been working hard for almost 30 years as a carpenter are crossing the street. Should the car either: a) Crash into the wealthy man? b) Spare him and crash into the old carpenter? 41 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The Moral Machine Scenario C: The self-driving car is riding on the street; the traffic light is in green for cars. Suddenly, a human is crossing unexpectedly the street (he is jaywalking). Should the car: a) Stop always, even when people are jaywalking? b) Just stop when people are crossing legally the street? 42 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The Moral Machine Scenario D: There is a man and two women on the street. Should it either: a) Crash into the man and spare the women who is just crossing the street or b) Spare the man and crash into the women 43 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Method: The Moral Machine online experimental platform designed to explore the moral dilemmas faced by autonomous vehicles multilingual online ‘serious game’ for collecting large-scale data on how citizens would want autonomous vehicles to solve moral dilemmas in the context of unavoidable accidents. 🡪 40 million decisions in ten languages from millions of people 44 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The moral decisions sparing humans versus pets staying on course versus swerving sparing passengers versus pedestrians sparing more lives versus fewer lives sparing men versus women sparing the young versus the elderly sparing the fit versus the less fit sparing pedestrians who cross legally versus jaywalking sparing those with higher social status versus lower social status 45 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Results (1) Preferences revealed by the Moral Machine are highly correlated to cultural and economic variations between countries 1. Individualistic cultures vs. collectivistic cultures Participants from individualistic cultures show a stronger preference for sparing the greater number of characters Participants from collectivistic cultures show a weaker preference for sparing younger characters (because elderly people are more respected) 2. Respect or violating the law Countries with higher prosperity (GDP per capita) and higher quality of rules and institutions (Rule of Law) correlate with a greater preference against pedestrians who cross illegally Participants from poorer countries which suffer from weaker institutions are more tolerant of pedestrians who cross illegally Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Note: The rule of law Legal maxime which states that all people and institutions are subject to and accountable to law; governance by law The extent to which laws and rules are considered important in governance The World Justice Project Rule of Law Index measures, how people from a certain countries perceive the “rule of law” Index compares 113 countries Survey in more than 110,000 households and which 3,000 experts High rule of law 🡪 countries which give precedence to law and rules for actions Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Results (2) 3. Differences for demographic reasons Higher country-level economic inequality (via Gini coefficient) corresponds to how unequally characters of different social status are treated Countries with less economic equality between the rich and poor also treat the rich and poor less equally in the Moral Machine 4. Differential treatment of male and female Corresponds to the country-level gender gap in health and survival In nearly all countries, participants showed a preference for female characters However, this preference was stronger in nations with better health and survival prospects for women. 🡪 in places where there is less devaluation of women’s lives in health and at birth, males are seen as more expendable in Moral Machine decision-making Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Country clusters Western Southern Eastern Switzerland Peru Japan The Netherlands El Salvador Macao Finland Paraguay China Iceland Argentina South Korea Belgium Uruguay Taiwan Spain Bolivia Cambodia Portugal Ecuador Egypt Lebanon UK Colombia United Arab Emirates Australia Venezuela Bahrain Ireland Honduras Kuwait US Philippines Saudi Arabia Canada New Caledonia Hong Kong Luxembourg Reunion Malaysia Denmark Hungary Indonesia Norway Dominican Republic Madagascar Germany Algeria Armenia Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Results Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Discussion What may we learn from the case? Which responsibility have companies like Audi, Tesla and Uber in the prevention of accidents? What does the study tell us about CSR and doing international business abroad? Further Information and TED-Talk: http://moralmachine.mit.edu/hl/de Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Overview 1. Introduction and Case 2. Stakeholder theory 3. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 4. Ethics and moral dilemmas 5. Legal foundations of ethical behavior 6. What MNEs can do: Codes of Conduct Negocios I 58 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Legal foundations of ethical behavior: PROs 1. The law embodies many of a country’s moral principles, making it an adequate guide for proper conduct. 2. The law provides a clearly defined set of rules, and following it at least establishes a good precedent for acceptable behavior. 3. The law contains enforceable rules that apply to everyone. 4. Because the law represents a consensus derived from widely shared experience and deliberation, it reflects careful and wide-ranging discussions Negocios I 59 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Legal foundations of ethical behavior: CONs 1. Some things that are unethical are not illegal. Some forms of interpersonal behavior, for example, can clearly be wrong even if they’re not against the law. (e.g., employing 16 year old in China) 2. The law is slow to develop in emerging areas, and it takes time to pass and test laws in the courts. They can’t always anticipate dilemmas that will arise in the future. 3. The law is often based on imprecisely defined moral concepts that can’t be separated from the legal concepts they underpin 4. The law often needs to undergo scrutiny by the courts. This is especially true of case law, in which the courts create law by establishing precedent. 5. The law simply isn’t very efficient, i.e, achieving ethical behavior at a very low cost Negocios I 60 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Corruption and bribery: The case of Petrobras One of the biggest corruption cases in history (since 2014) Brazilian majority-state-owned oil company, which has resulted in the disclosure of at least $2 billion in bribes, kickbacks, and money laundering Involves executives, other companies (especially Odebrecht) and more than 50 politicians, especially from the Brazilian Worker’s Party (Partido dos Trabalhadores; PT) of Pres. Dilma Rousseff Speaker of Brazil’s lower house of Congress and a powerful senator close to Brazil’s president are also being implicated Negocios I 61 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Corruption and bribery: The case of Petrobras Contracts for the Brazilian oil company Petrobras were executed by private construction companies at inflated prices. The suspected contractors shared the additional revenue with Petrobras employees and politicians, and some of it also flowed into party coffers (the goal was to finance the PT) 🡪 President Dilma of Brazil was impeached in 2016 over the bribery scandals Negocios I 62 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The problem of child labor Arguments for the use of children in the Indian carpet industry: (1) they’re better suited than adults to perform certain tasks, (2) if they weren’t employed, they’d be even worse off. In the 1990s, the impoverished Asian nation of Bangladesh was pressured to stop employing thousands of child workers or face U.S. trade sanction Children did in fact go from bad to worse. Between 5,000 and 7,000 young girls, for example, went from factory work to prostitution Negocios I 66 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Ethical dilemma Should MNEs favor or even encourage child labor in such countries? According to the ILO the term “child labour” is often defined as work that deprives children of their childhood, their potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development. It refers to work that: - is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful to children; and/or - interferes with their schooling by: depriving them of the opportunity to attend school; obliging them to leave school prematurely; or requiring them to attempt to combine school attendance with excessively long and heavy work. Whether or not particular forms of “work” can be called “child labour” depends on the child’s age, the type and hours of work performed, the conditions under which it is performed and the objectives pursued by individual countries. The answer varies from country to country, as well as among sectors within countries. Negocios I 67 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama IKEA and its Indian rug provider Negocios I 68 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama IKEA and its Indian rug provider Response: IKEA helped working mothers increase family earning power so they could escape the clutches of the loan sharks to whom they were putting up their children IKEA set up “bridge schools” to enable working children to enter mainstream education within a year 🡪 MNEs do have transformative power in emerging markets! IKEA has substantially improved the conditions of workers in overseas facilities Negocios I 69 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Sustainability and environmental issues Negocios I 70 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The Mariana and Brumadinho dam disasters (Brazil) 5 November 2015 Dam break near Mariana at the mining company Samarco Mineração S.A. (Brazilian mining company, joint-venture between the Brazilian Vale and the English-Australian BHP) 🡪 flooding that produced a mudflow of heavy metals that polluted the rivers and beaches and reached the Atlantic Ocean 17 days later Negocios I 71 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama The Mariana and Brumadinho dam disasters (Brazil) 25 January 2019 Another dam break near Brumadinho by Vale (Brazilian mining company) Involved: the German TÜV (auditing company for dam security) Still no “justice” to families, landowners, and environment Negocios I 72 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Overview 1. Introduction and Case 2. Stakeholder theory 3. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 4. Ethics and moral dilemmas 5. Legal foundations of ethical behavior 6. What MNEs can do: Codes of Conduct Negocios I 74 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Sustainable Development Goals Set up in 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly (UN-GA) and are intended to be achieved by 2030 Collection of 17 interlinked global goals designed to be a "blueprint to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all“ Negocios I 78 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Code of Conduct Component of companies’ strategies for ethical and socially responsible behavior (external and internal) Give companies general guidance on how to operate Four criteria: 1. Sets global policies with which everyone working anywhere for the company must comply. 2. Communicates company policies to all employees, suppliers and subcontractors. 3. Ensures that policies are carried out (through training programs or internal audits). 4. It reports the results to external stakeholders. Negocios I 80 Facultad Economía y Negocios Alejandra Vasquez Delama Questions?