La Revolución Industrial PDF

# La Revolución Industrial ## El origen de la Revolución Industrial ### Movimiento Natural de la población inglesa The document describes the evolution of the population in England during the 18th century. It includes a graph to illustrate the changes in birthrate, death rate, and the natural gro...

# La Revolución Industrial ## El origen de la Revolución Industrial ### Movimiento Natural de la población inglesa The document describes the evolution of the population in England during the 18th century. It includes a graph to illustrate the changes in birthrate, death rate, and the natural growth rate. It shows an increase in natural growth rate, in spite of a slower growth from 1700 to 1760. ### 2. Interpreta el gráfico The chart described above shows that: * The birth rate and death rate remained relatively stable in England during the early 1700s, but the birth rate was consistently higher. * The natural population growth rate was most significant between 1760 and 1800, due to decreasing death rates. ### El concepto de Revolución Industrial The Industrial Revolution was a set of significant socioeconomic transformations resulting from the widespread adoption of machines in the production process. These changes began in Great Britain in the mid-18th century, shifting from an agrarian economy and a rural society to an industrial economy and an urban society. The Industrial Revolution can be divided into two phases: the First Industrial Revolution, which began around 1760, and the Second Industrial Revolution, which began around 1870. The Industrial Revolution was accompanied by significant demographic and agricultural changes. ### La revolución demográfica * The English population grew slowly until the 18th century due to high birth rates and high death rates. * During the second half of the 18th century, substantial population growth began, primarily due to lower death rates. This decrease was attributed to factors such as: * The decline in bubonic plague outbreaks. * Improved nutrition, leading to greater resistance to disease. * Advances in hygiene, both personal and public. * Improvements in public health, such as the discovery of the smallpox vaccine in 1796. * The population growth created a demand for agricultural goods and industrial products and increased the labor pool available to work in factories. ### La revolución agrícola * The increased demand for food led to agricultural innovations, such as: * The introduction of the four-field crop rotation system, improving soil fertility. * The replacement of wooden plows with iron plows. * The introduction of new machinery like seeders, threshers, and mechanical reapers. * These advancements contributed to the transformation of agricultural structures. * **The Enclosure Acts** led to the consolidation of land ownership, allowing for greater investment in agriculture and an increase in productivity. * Further improvements in livestock breeding and feed production increased the amount of animal product available, in turn providing more fertilizer for agriculture. * The rise in agricultural production contributed to increased income, allowing farmers to invest in industry and banking. ### A new way of thinking * The economic growth in Great Britain was driven by several specific factors: * The existence of a large domestic market, facilitated by a robust transportation network and the absence of internal tariffs. * The presence of a large overseas market through its colonies. * The embrace of a new entrepreneurial mindset by the British bourgeoisie, who were more willing to invest and assume risk. * The presence of natural resources like iron and coal, essential for industrial production. ## La Primera Revolución Industrial ### Industrialización británica en 1800 The map portrays the industrialization in England during the year 1800. The key elements highlighted include: * Textile industry (wool and cotton). * Coal deposits. * Metal industries. * Canals. ### Exportaciones británicas de tejidos de algodón The chart describes the evolution of the British export of cotton textiles from 1820 to 1840, highlighting exports to North America, Europe, India, China, Africa, and other overseas markets. ### 2. Interpreta el mapa y el gráfico * Industrial centers, particularly the cotton industry, were concentrated in regions with access to coal deposits. * The export of cotton textiles grew consistently between 1820 and 1840. ### Del taller a la fábrica * Before the Industrial Revolution, production mainly took place in small workshops, where craftspeople used hand tools and controlled their own pace of work. * The invention of new and more complex machinery during the Industrial Revolution necessitated larger spaces and considerable investment. * This led to the emergence of factories, which housed machinery-powered work and employed workers in a more regimented environment. * The first factories were powered by water, but the invention of the steam engine by James Watt led to greater productivity. * The emergence of factories also altered the nature of work. The specialization of labor, or the division of work into smaller tasks, became common. With workers assigned to specific tasks and working according to a set schedule, overall productivity increased. ### The leading sectors: the textile industry * The British textile industry, particularly the cotton industry, flourished due to access to a plentiful and affordable source of raw material, cotton, imported from British colonies. * The cotton industry was at the forefront of technological innovation in areas like spinning (thanks to the invention of Hargreaves' spinning jenny, Arkwright's water frame, and Crompton's mule) and weaving (with Kay’s flying shuttle and Cartwright’s power loom). * The adoption of steam engines to power textile machinery led to a tremendous growth in production, with approximately 350,000 people employed in the cotton industry in 1800. * The competitive price and high quality of British textiles made them desirable internationally, making them a key driver of the British economy. * The success of the textile industry stimulated growth in other sectors, such as agriculture, which provided raw materials, and the iron and steel industry, which supplied materials for machinery. ### The leading sectors: The iron and steel industry * Before the 18th century, the iron production in Great Britain was hampered by low quality due to the use of charcoal as fuel and the presence of impurities. * The discovery of coke as an alternative to charcoal and Henry Cort’s invention of a new refining process in the late 18th century significantly improved the quality of iron and led to a dramatic rise in production. * The availability of cheap and high-quality iron was essential for the manufacturing of machinery and tools. ### **The liberalist economy** * The development of new economic thought alongside industrialization, particularly from the Scottish philosopher Adam Smith, introduced the concept of liberalism in the late 18th century. * Smith's work, “The Wealth of Nations” (1776), argued for individual economic freedom, advocating for free markets, minimal government intervention, and the division of labor. * These ideas contributed to the growth of capitalism, though its application in practice often fell short of Smith’s idealized vision. * Capitalism’s emphasis on competition and the pursuit of profit played a key role in the unprecedented economic growth of the Industrial Revolution. ### **La revolución de los transportes** * The rapid growth of the British economy created a pressing need for fast and reliable transportation to facilitate the delivery of goods and raw materials. * While new roads were built and existing ones improved during the 18th century, water transport remained the most economical. * Canals were built, particularly for the transportation of bulky items like coal. * The invention of the steam engine led to its application to navigation, with the first commercial steamboat line launched by Robert Fulton in 1807 which primarily served inland waterways. * The development of the steam engine and the abundance of iron propelled the rise of railroads. * George Stephenson built the first locomotive in 1814, and the first public railway line opened in 1825, leading to a significant upgrade in transport, with benefits to the economy, the mining industry, and the iron and steel sector. * Railway lines spread rapidly across the world, including long-distance lines like the Trans-Siberian Railway, constructed between 1891 and 1905, which connected Moscow to Vladivostok, fostering economic growth and trade. ### The effects of the revolution of transports * The development of railroads and steamships had diverse impacts on society: * Boosted the mining, metallurgy, and iron and steel industries, creating new jobs for machinists and firemen. * Expanded the reach of trade as transportation times and costs were reduced, increasing the supply of goods and promoting a global market. * Led to a greater specialization in economies, with industrialized countries producing manufactured goods for export and developing countries exporting raw materials. * Transformed daily life, improving diets by making perishable foods more widely available, facilitating migration and travel, and fostering opportunities for leisure activities like visiting family and going on vacation. ## The Second Industrial Revolution The Second Industrial Revolution, which began in the 1870s, was fueled by the development of new energy sources: electricity and petroleum. ### **Changes in Transportation** * The transition from sail-powered ships to steam-powered ships, powered by the propeller, became complete by 1890, and the construction of ships with iron hulls made them faster and more efficient. * The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 significantly reduced travel times between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, leading to increased trade and global interconnectedness. * The use of petroleum as a fuel source led to the invention of two major transportation innovations: the automobile, independently developed by Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler in 1895, and the airplane, whose first motor-powered flight was achieved by the Wright brothers in 1903. ### **New energy sources and industries** * The use of **electricity**, which became widely adopted in industry for powering machines, gave rise to new forms of transportation, including electric railways, subways, and streetcars, as well as new communication technologies such as the telephone, radio, and cinema. * The discovery of **petroleum** in 1859 opened up a new energy source that became crucial with the development of the internal combustion engine, used in automobiles. * The textile industry lost its leading role in the economy to the **iron and steel industry**, the **chemical industry**, and the **electrical industry**. * The **iron and steel industry** experienced a major leap forward with the invention of the Bessemer converter, which enabled the mass production of steel at low cost. * **The chemical industry** used new raw materials like petroleum and rubber to create new products, including pharmaceuticals, synthetic materials, and explosives. * The **electrical industry** benefited from the advances in the generation and distribution of electricity, leading to its widespread adoption. * This second industrial revolution significantly impacted the United States and Germany, where its industries flourished. ### **The large enterprise and modern banking** * At the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, most companies were small and family-owned, struggling to expand due to limited financing. * **Joint-stock companies** emerged, allowing for greater investment and the recruitment of larger workforces. This was made possible due to the issuance of shares, or portions of the company's ownership, which were traded on stock exchanges. * Banks played a crucial role, providing loans to businesses and facilitating investment by connecting savers with entrepreneurs. This marked the rise of **financial capitalism**. ## New systems of work * To increase productivity at the end of the 19th century, new systems of work were implemented: ### Taylorism * Developed by engineer Frederick W. Taylor, **Taylorism** involved breaking down production into small, standardized tasks that could be timed and analyzed. * Workers were trained to perform these specific tasks efficiently, and wages were based on output, motivating them to work harder. ### The assembly line * Henry Ford adopted Taylor’s principles in his automobile factories, introducing the **assembly line**, a system where workers were assigned to specific tasks and products moved sequentially through a production line. * This method significantly increased production speed and efficiency, leading to a decrease in production costs and a subsequent reduction in prices. ### Mass production * Ford also pioneered **mass production**, where a large number of identical products were manufactured using standardized components and assembly lines. This enabled the distribution of goods to a larger market at a lower cost. ### Other forms of business concentration * The need for large investments and market control motivated companies to merge and form partnerships, leading to various forms of business concentration: #### **Cartels:** Companies in the same industry agree to control production and distribution, set prices together, and share their profits. #### **Trusts:** Groups of businesses merge, encompassing various stages of production from raw materials to finished products, aiming to dominate the market by eliminating competition. #### **Holding companies:** One company controls a majority of shares in several other companies, giving it the power over their operations and decisions. ### The Birth of the Labor movement * The rise of factories and the concentration of workers in urban areas resulted in the emergence of the labor movement, a collective effort by laborers to improve their working conditions: #### **Luddism:** This early form of protest consisted of workers destroying machines, which they blamed for their plight. The movement was inspired by the fictional character Ned Ludd. #### **Chartism:** A more organized protest group began campaigning in Britain in 1838, calling for social and political reforms, particularly universal suffrage, or voting rights for all adults, in the “People’s Charter.” #### **Trade Unions:** These organizations, formed with the legalization of labor unions in Britain in 1824, sought better wages, shorter working hours, the elimination of child labor, and improved safety conditions. They used strikes to exert leverage. #### **Marxism:** * Karl Marx theorized that history was driven by a perpetual struggle between social classes, specifically the proletariat (workers) and the bourgeoisie (capitalists). * His writings, particularly the “Communist Manifesto,” advocated for the overthrow of capitalism by a socialist revolution, leading to a classless society. #### **Anarchism:** * Anarchists, like Mikhail Bakunin, sought a societal transformation that would eliminate the state and replace it with voluntary associations of communities. * They advocated for the collective ownership of production resources and the achievement of a stateless society through individual and collective actions rather than through a political process. ### **The First and Second Internationals** * The establishment of the **First International Working Men’s Association** (AIT) in 1864 marked a key effort to unite laborers across various socialist and anarchist ideologies. However, disagreements between these factions led to its dissolution in 1876. * The **Second International** founded in 1889 brought together predominantly Marxist and socialist organizations, fostering greater unity, promoting the eight-hour workday, and spearheading the celebration of May 1 as International Workers' Day. ### The achievements of the labor movement * The labor movement witnessed significant success in the late 19th and early 20th centuries: * The introduction of regulations limiting child labor. * The establishment of the eight-hour workday, although not fully implemented in all countries. * The realization of the right to form unions. * The expansion of suffrage, although not universally granted. ## The Middle and Lower Classes ### The Middle Classes * By the end of the 19th century, the middle class had become more prominent in industrialized countries, particularly in urban areas. It consisted of individuals from various professions, such as teachers, shopkeepers, doctors, administrators, and military officers. * Their economic standing was higher than the lower classes but lower than the upper class, and they generally enjoyed a higher standard of living. * Key values held by the middle class included hard work, thriftiness, education, and a focus on social respectability. * Members of the middle class often socialized in cafes, clubs, or casinos. ### The Lower Classes * The majority of people in the 19th century still lived in rural areas, and their circumstances varied depending on geographical location and the nature of their employment. * In Northern and Western Europe, many were landowning farmers, whereas in Southern Europe, they often worked as laborers on large farms or estates. * With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, a new social class, the proletariat, emerged. These workers, often employed in factories, sold their labor for wages, often earning very little and facing precarious living conditions. * Child labor was prevalent, with children often forced to work long hours for minimal pay. * Domestic service also provided employment for many, typically in the form of servants, who often lived under difficult conditions, earning low wages and having little free time. ## **The Great Powers in the Second Half of the 19th Century** * The political landscape of Europe in the latter half of the 19th century presented a diversity of governmental systems: ### Authoritarian regimes * Countries like Germany and Austria-Hungary were characterized by monarchies wielding immense power, though they did have parliaments. However, these parliaments lacked the power to challenge the monarchy's authority. * These nations also had strong militaries and tended to be ethnically and culturally diverse, with strong nationalistic sentiments. ### Liberal regimes * Nations like the United Kingdom and France developed more robust liberal systems with a balance of power between the monarchs and the parliaments. * Citizens in these nations enjoyed greater freedoms, such as the right to free speech, assembly, and the right to vote (expanded through the introduction of universal male suffrage in France in the mid-19th century). * The rise of socialist parties and the ability of workers to participate in the political process further strengthened liberal systems in these countries. ### The Autocratic Russian Empire * In contrast to the rest of Europe, Russia was governed by an absolute monarchy, where the Tsar held complete and unlimited power over all aspects of government and society. * The nobility held positions of authority in the military and administration. * Though the Tsar Alexander II formally abolished serfdom in 1861, granting personal freedom, economic conditions for former serfs remained challenging. * The Russian Empire contained a vast range of ethnicities and faced a strong nationalist policy (Rusification), promoting the Russian language and culture over those of other groups, leading to tensions and conflicts within the empire. ## The Factors of Imperialism * Imperialism, the expansion of one nation's power over others, experienced a resurgence in the 19th century. * This era saw the colonization of vast territories in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific by European powers, as well as by the United States and Japan. The key factors driving this expansion were: * **Economic and Demographic Factors:** * Industrialized nations sought new markets, cheap raw materials, and opportunities for investment outside their borders. * The surge in European populations led to a demand for additional land and resources, especially for those facing limited economic opportunities. * **Religious Factors:** * The Western powers often framed their colonial expansion as a mission to spread Christianity and convert non-Christian populations. * **Political Factors:** * Competition between European powers, driven by a desire to increase a nation’s prestige, territorial control, and expand their sphere of influence, triggered a scramble for colonial possessions. * Strategic locations, like control over trade routes, were also highly desired. * **Ideological Factors:** * The idea of European racial superiority, believing their culture and civilization to be superior to those in colonized regions, contributed to a sense of entitlement to rule and exploit other peoples. * **Scientific Factors:** * Scientific societies and explorers played a role in mapping and researching uncharted lands, often leading to the subsequent colonization of these areas. ## **The administration of colonies and their effects** * European powers instituted various forms of colonial administration: ### **Colonies:** * These territories were directly ruled by the metropole, losing their sovereignty and subject to the colonizer’s laws. ### **Protectorates:** * These territories underwent some control from the colonizing power, focusing on external affairs, but retaining a degree of self-governance in internal affairs. ### **Concessions:** * These agreements granted commercial rights and influence to colonizing powers in areas still officially under control of a foreign, independent nation. * The implementation of these colonial systems often disregarded cultural and ethnic boundaries, leading to conflicts and tensions after decolonization. ### The economic exploitation of the colonies * Colonial powers exploited colonies' resources and labor for their own economic benefit, often prioritizing the cultivation of cash crops like cotton, rubber, diamonds, and gold, neglecting the needs of local communities. ### The consequences of colonial exploitation * The forced labor, displacement, and exploitation of indigenous populations often led to poverty, social upheaval, and the erosion of traditional economies and ways of life. * The suppression of local industries and the import of manufactured goods from Europe weakened the development of local economies and economies. * While building infrastructure like roads and ports did occur, it primarily benefited the colonizer by facilitating the extraction of resources and the transportation of goods and people. This left many areas within the colonies underdeveloped. ### **Social and cultural effects** * The imposition of Western customs and institutions, including education, medicine, and legal systems, resulted in the displacement of indigenous cultures, often leading to a process of assimilation and the rejection of traditional customs. * Many indigenous societies faced assimilation into Western culture, while those who resisted faced harsh consequences, sometimes even resulting in extermination.