The Study of Personality PDF

The Study of Personality What is a THEORY? - theories are not useless fantasies fabricated by impractical scholars fearful Theory of soilin...

The Study of Personality What is a THEORY? - theories are not useless fantasies fabricated by impractical scholars fearful Theory of soiling their hands in the machinery of -a set of related assumptions that allows scientific organization. scientists to use logical deductive Hypothesis reasoning to formulate testable hypothesis. A single assumption could not serve to - a hypothesis are more specific than the integrate several observations. (the theories that give them birth, theories are hypothesis must suggest possibility that too general. scientists in the future might develop the - deductive and inductive reasoning are necessary means to test it.) used for the relationship between a theory - tools used to generate research and and a hypothesis. organize observations. - deductive reasoning can derive testable - theories are not proven facts but they are hypothesis from a useful theory then test accepted as if they were true. these hypotheses. And an inductive *The hypothesis are not the components of a reasoning alters the theory to reflect these theory, but they rather flow from it. It begins results. with a general theory, then with the use of Taxonomy deductive reasoning, researchers arrive at a particular hypothesis. - taxonomy is a classification of things according to their natural relationships and *In the study of psychology, in the study of personality or behavior, there is a scientific can evolve into theories when they begin basis we make use of scientific methodologies. to generate testable hypotheses and to explain research findings. Theory and its RELATIVES FORMAL AND PERSONAL Philosophy THEORIES - philosophy means the love of wisdom. Formal Theories - philosophers are people who pursue - are based on data from observations of wisdom through thinking and reasoning large numbers of people of diverse while scientists ordinarily conduct natures. controlled studies. - a broader range of data supports formal - philosophy deals with what ought to be theories, hence they are more or what should be while a theory deals comprehensive and we can generalize with broad sets of if-then statements. more effectively from formal theories to Speculation explain and predict the behavior of more - theories rely on speculation, but they are kinds of people. much more. - are likely to be more objective because 1. Generates Research scientists’ observations. - a theory must have empirical translation that leads to formulate many testable - are tested repeatedly against reality. hypothesis about relationships among Personal Theories phenomena. - are derived from our observations of a - the most important criterion of a useful limited number of theory. persons—usually our small circle of - a useful theory will generate two relatives, friends, and acquaintances, as different kinds of research: descriptive well as ourselves. research and hypothesis testing - are based as much on observations of ourselves as of others. 2. Falsifiability - we tend to interpret the actions of other - must be precise enough to provide people in terms of our thoughts and research that supports or rejects its feelings, evaluating their reactions to a principles (major tenets) or hypothesis in situation on the basis of what we would do order to see if a theory should be modified or how we would feel. or discarded. What are the factors to consider 3. Organizes Data in the EVALUATION OF - must be able to integrate pertinent, THEORY? important, relevant data about behavior and personality development to give - an understanding of theories of scientists a clear direction to following the personality rests on information regarding pursuit of further knowledge. the historical, social, and psychological worlds of each theorist at the time of his or her theorizing. Personality differences 4. Guides Action among theorists account for fundamental - there is an actionability, it must be able disagreements between those who learn to guide experts or explain the day-to-day toward the quantitative side of psychology experiences that we have. It should have and those inclined toward the clinical and implications in real life situations. qualitative side of psychology. 5. Internally Consistent - although a theorist’s personality partially - should be consistent by using concepts or shapes his or her theory it should not be the terms that are clearly or operationally sole determinant of that theory. defined because these terms can be - when evaluating and choosing a theory, defined differently from the usual generic we should acknowledge the impact of the definitions. theorist’s personal history on the theory, 6. Parsimonious but you should ultimately evaluate it on - it should be simple that even ordinary the basis of objective scientific criteria that individuals could grasp or understand are independent of that personal history. what the proponent or the theory it trying to explain or convey. - simple straightforward theories are more and characteristics are part of the useful than ones that bog down under the definition of personality. weight of complicated concepts and Traits What is a PERSONALITY? - contribute to individual differences in *The etymology of the word personality behavior, consistency of behavior over comes from the Latin word “Persona” time, and stability of behavior across which refers to a theatrical mask used by situations. actors in a play to project a role or false - in whatever circumstances, if they give a appearance. This is not an acceptable consistent behavior then they are definition of a personality. When considered as traits. psychologists use the term “personality” Characteristics they are referring to something more than the role people play. - are unique qualities of an individual that include such attributes as temperament, physique, and intelligence. The subject of personality is too complex - more on how you describe yourself and for such a simplified description, because other people. humans are too complex and changeable in different situations and with different Personality people. - (a generic definition of personality) a pattern of relatively permanent traits (there is a possibility that it could change, *One psychologist suggested that we can especially when given a particular get a good idea of its meaning if we situation) and unique characteristics that examine our intentions whenever we use give both consistency and individuality the word “I” which sums up everything (talks about the uniqueness of an about yourself. It is was defines you as an individual) to a person’s behavior. individual, separate from all others. - a totality or collection of various characteristics that goes beyond *Personality theorists have not agreed on superficial physical qualities but also a single definition of personality. They social and emotional qualities as well. evolved unique and vital theories because they lacked agreement as to the nature of humanity, each seeing personality from an *A personality will help determine the individual reference point and have had a boundaries of your success and life variety of backgrounds. fulfillment. It is one of our most important assets. It has already helped shape your experiences and certainly will continue to Is PERSONALITY the same to do so. All your achievements to date, your TRAITS and CHARACTERISTICS? expectations for the future, whether you - no, they are not the same but are will be a good spouse or parent, even your somehow related to one another. Traits health can be influenced by your personality and the personalities of the  Melancholic – sad, fearful, people with whom you interact. Your depressed, poetic, and personality can limit or expand your artistic  Sanguine – warm-hearted, options and choices, prevent you from cheerful, optimistic, and sharing certain experiences or enable you confident to take advantage of them. It restricts or  Phlegmatic – slow, quiet, constrains some people and open up the shy, rational, and consistent world to others. Franz Josef Gall  Distances between bumps on the skull reveal a person’s Historical Perspective personality traits, character, and Hippocrates mental abilities.  Phrenology  Human behaviors are based on four separate There was even a study that they measure the skull of a person. The bigger the skull, temperaments associated with they said that it could be better; the bigger four fluids or “humors” of the brain that you have, the better; the more body: neurons you have, you have higher  Choleric (yellow bile from intelligence. the liver) Intelligence Immanuel Kant  Melancholic (black bile from the kidneys) Feelings – people  He agreed with Galen on the four temperaments and susceptible to sadness that there was no overlap  Sanguine (red blood from the between the four categories. heart) Energy  There is only one  Phlegmatic (white phlegm particular temperament that is from the lungs) Weak dominant to a person. individual Wilhem Wundt Each humors or temperaments, there is a corresponding personality in which of this four temperaments that are dominant. (depending on the individual) Human behaviors are actually based on which particular fluids or humors that are dominant to a person. Galen  Imbalances in the humors determine personality type as well as inclinations towards certain illnesses:  Choleric – fiery, energetic and passionate  Usually, melancholic can be paired with  Temperament, abilities sanguine  Description that we have about  Choleric can be paired with phlegmatic ourselves Social Cognitive Perspective Sigmund Freud  Observational learning, self efficacy,  Psychoanalytic theory situational influences, and cognitive processes  Major theorist: Bandura  Conscious behavior, observable behavior, conscious awareness, rewards and punishment Ethnic and Gender Issues in Major Personality Perspective Personality Psychodynamic Perspective - having biases in the study in the study of  Unconscious psychological processes psychology based on the aspects of gender childhood experiences are crucial in and ethnicity cannot be avoided. shaping adult personality - theorists accepted the importance of  Major theorists: Freud, Erikson, Jung, social and environmental forces in shaping Adler, Horney personality, they tended to ignore or  Childhood experiences, unconscious minimize the influence of gender and motives, sexual instinct ethnic background.  Focus on the unconscious - if the world in which people live in and psychological processes or the factors that affect their upbringing are childhood process and consider it as different, then surely as a result their crucial in shaping adult personality. personalities can be expected to differ. a. Educational and professional Humanistic Perspective opportunities for women and for people  Psychological growth, free will, and of ethnic minority groups were limited. personal awareness - You can see in the history of  Major theorists: Rogers, Maslow, May, psychology that it is male dominated. Frankl Male dominated discipline.  Psychological growth, personal b. Boys and girls are typically reared awareness, subjective feelings according to traditional stereotypes, and  Free will, self-actualization this upbringing influences personality in  Happiness. Life, Existence different ways. Trait Perspective - bias in the different stages of life  Specific traits that make up human c. Little research has been conducted on personality personality in African, South America,  Major theorists: Allport, Eysenck, and Asian nations. Cattell, McCrae and Costa d. At the time, nearly all of the great Standardization advances were propounded and - it involves the consistency or uniformity promoted by White men of European of conditions and procedures for and American background. Educational opportunities for women, people of administering a test. color, and people of other ethnic groups Reliability were also limited. - it is the extent to which is yields e. Virtually all of the patients, clients, and subjects in whom the theories are based consistent results. were also White and men. - if you took the same test on two different f. Limiting the applicability of cross- days and received two widely different cultural personality research is that most scores, the test could not be considered studies use college students as research reliable. participants. Validity ASSESSMENT in the study of - the degree to which an instrument personality measures what it is supposed to. *It was not until the late 1930s that the study of - if a test does not measure what it claims personality became formalized and systemized to then it is not valid and its results cannot in American psychology, primarily through the be used to predict behavior. work of Gordon Allport “Personality: A Psychological Interpretation” which marked the - there are two types of of validity: formal beginning of the study of personality. construct validity and predictive validity. *The assessment of personality is a major area - construct validity is the extent to which of application of psychology to real-world an instrument measures some hypothetical concerns. Clinical pyschologists try to construct while predictive validity is the understand the symptoms of their patients or extent that a test predicts some future clients by attempting to asses their personalities, behavior. by differentiating between normal and abnormal behaviors and feelings. School *The ultimate value of any measuring psychologists evaluate the personalities of the instrument is the degree to which it can students referred to them for treatment in an predict some future behavior or condition. attempt to uncover the causes of adjustment or learning problems for a particular job. Counseling psychologists measure personality to find the best job for a particular applicant. Research psychologists assess the personalities of their subjects in attempt to account for their behavior in an experiment or to correlate their personality traits with other measurements. Much of your success in the workplace will be determined by your performance on various psychological tests. METHODS OF ASSESSMENT: 2. Projective techniques - participants are presumed to project 1. Self-report or collective inventories personal needs, fears, and values onto their - asking people to report on themselves by interpretation or description of an answering questions about their behavior ambiguous stimulus. and feelings in various situations. - the interpretation of the results of - MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic projective tests is so subjective these tests Personality Inventory) which may be the are not high in reliability or validity. world’s most widely used psychological test (a tru-false test consisting of 567 - Rorschach Inkblot Test (By Hermann statements) and CPI (California Rorschach where patients are shown Psychological Inventory) inkblot cards and are asked to describe what they see) and Thematic Apperception - Level A (conducted by a licensed Test (by Henry Murray and Christiana psychometrician) or B exams (conducted Morgan) by a licensed psychometrician with a licensed psychologist) - Level C exams (requires experts who had adequate training and education to - this method of assessment is objective perform this.) because respondents are only given options that are limited. - most commonly used along with 3. Clinical interviews projective techniques and clinical - valuable information are obtained by interviews. talking to the person being evaluated and asking relevant questions about past and - there are disadvantages to these tests: present life experiences, social and family they are not always appropriate for people relationships, and the problems that led the whose level of intelligence registers below person to seek psychological help. normal, for people with limited reading skills; minor changes in the wording of the questions can lead to major changes in the 4. Behavioral assessment procedures results; there is a tendency for test-takers - an observer evaluates a person’s to give answers that appear to be more behavior in a given situation. socially desirable or acceptable. - counselors observe their clients’ behavior and use that information in *Computerized Test Administration formulating their diagnoses. - most self-report inventories can be taken - Arnold Buss and Robert Plumin’s EASI on your PC or laptop at home. Temperament Survey - many organizations prefer that job applicants take tests in this way as a 5. Thought-sampling assessment prescreening method, rather than taking up procedures time and space in the company’s office. - a person’s thoughts are recorded systematically to provide a sample over a period of time.  by the clinical method are more subjective and are open to different interpretations. RESEARCH in the study of personality Experimental Method - two of the requirements of scientific Idiographic research research are satisfied by this method: one - intensive study of a small number of is that observations are well controlled and research participants. systematic, and; second is that it involves - usually used in case studies. duplication and verification meaning that with careful control of experimental - knowledge gained about a subject is used conditions, a researcher working at to aid in treatment. another time and in another place can Nomothetic research duplicate precisely the conditions under - comparing and analyzing statistical which the earlier research is conducted. differences among large samples of - there are situations in which it cannot be research participants. used; some aspects of behavior and - to obtain data that can be generalized to personality cannot be studied under a broad range of people. rigorously controlled laboratory Three major methods: conditions because of safety and ethical considerations; subjects’ behavior may Clinical method – assessment, clinical change not because of the experimental interviev, behavior assessment, projective treatment but because the subjects are technique aware that they are being observed. Experimental method – cause and effect Correlational Method Correlational method – relationship - researchers investigate the relationships between variable that exist among variables. Rather than Descriptive – defining, explaning a manipulating an independent variable, the certain behavior experimenters deal with the variable’s Clinical Method existing attributes and on how behavior on one variable changes or differs as a - the primary clinical method is a case function of the other variable. study which psychologists search their patients’ past and present for clues that - the primary statistical measure of might point to the source of the patients’ correlation is the emotional problems. correlation coefficient, which provides - this method includes tests, interviews, precise information about the direction and dream analysis, all of which can also and strength of the relationship between be used for assessment. two variables. If high scores on one variable accompany high scores on the - although this method attempts to be other variable, the direction is positive. If scientific, it does not offer the precision high scores on one variable accompany and control of the experimental and correlational method. The data obtained low scores on the other variable, the Teology direction is negative. - do they act as they do because they have - the primary limitation of the correlational certain expectations of what will happen in method relates to cause and effect. Just the future? because two variables show a high correlation, it does not necessarily follow that one has caused the other. CONSCIOUS VS UNCONSCIOUS Conscious - are people ordinarily aware of what they DIMENSIONS for a concept of are doing and why they are doing it? personality Unconscious - to determine which one a specific theory leans on more. - do unconscious forces impinge on them and drive them to act without awareness of these underlying forces. DETERMINISM VS FREE CHOICE Determinism BIOLOGICAL VS SOCIAL - are people’s behavior determined by INFLUENCES forced over which they have no control? Biological Free choice - are people mostly creatures of biology? - can people choose to be who they wish to Social influences be? - are their personalities shaped largely by their social relationships? PESSIMISM VS OPTIMISM Pessimism SIMILARITIES VS UNIQUENESS - are people doomed to live a miserable, Similarities conflicted, and troubles lives? - should the study of personality Optimism concentrate on traits that make people - can they change and grow into alike? psychologically healthy, happy, and fully Uniqueness functioning human beings? - should it look at traits that make people different? CASUALITY VS TEOLOGY Casuality - do people act as they do because of what has happened to them in the past?