PPF Trade Comparative Advantage PDF

Economic Models: Tradeoffs and Trade TUNNEL VISION A miniature airplane sitting motionless in a wind tunnel isn’t the same thing as an actual aircraft in flight. But it is a very useful model of a flying plane. Economic theory consists mainly of a collection of models. In this chapter,...

Economic Models: Tradeoffs and Trade TUNNEL VISION A miniature airplane sitting motionless in a wind tunnel isn’t the same thing as an actual aircraft in flight. But it is a very useful model of a flying plane. Economic theory consists mainly of a collection of models. In this chapter, we will look at two economic models that illustrate why such models are so useful.  Chapter Objectives 1. Why models in economics? 2. Three simple but important models: A. Production possibility frontier B. Comparative advantage C. Circular-flow diagram 3. Positive economics and normative economics. 4. When economists agree and why they sometimes disagree. Models in Economics A model is a simplified representation of a real situation - used to better understand real-life situations. Models play a crucial role in economics Used to study a real but simplified economy Ex.: Cigarettes as currency in World War II prison camps Used to simulate an economy on a computer Ex.: Use Tax models to study impact of proposed study The “other things equal” (ceteris paribus) assumption means that all other relevant factors remain unchanged.  Case example Models for Money ▪ An economic model can be worth quite a bit of money. Global Insight, the world’s biggest consulting firm, uses economic models to predict future trends and give advice to firms and governments. ▪ A particularly lucrative branch is finance theory which calculates what assets, such as shares in a company, are worth. ▪ The most famous business application of finance theory was Long Term Capital Management, a fund that used sophisticated models to invest money for its wealthy clients. ▪ The fund did well for a while, then it collapsed. People feared companies would be brought down with it but the government organized a rescue operation. A similar situation almost happened in the fall of 2008.  Three Models The Production Possibility Frontier ❑Illustrates trade-offs facing an economy that produces only two goods. ❑It shows the maximum quantity of one good that can be produced for any given production of the other. ❑The PPF improves our understanding of trade-offs by considering a simplified economy What to do? that produces only two goods Even a castaway faces trade-offs. by showing this trade-off graphically. Opportunity Cost and Slope of PPF ❑If the tradeoff remains constant along the PPF then we say they face a Constant Opportunity Cost and the PPF has a linear slope. ❑If the tradeoff increases along the PPF than we say they face an Increasing Opportunity Cost and the PPF has a nonlinear slope.  The Production Possibility Frontier with Constant Opportunity Cost Quantity of coconuts 30 D Feasible and efficient Not in production feasible A 15 Feasible but B 9 not efficient C Production possibility frontier PPF 0 20 28 40 Quantity of fish  PPF with Increasing Opportunity Cost Quantity of coconuts Producing the first …requires giving up 35 20 fish... 5 coconuts 30 But producing 20 more fish... A 25 20 …requires giving up 15 25 more coconuts… 10 5 PPF 0 10 20 30 40 50 Quantity of fish Economic Growth ❑Economic Growth is the growing ability of the economy to produce goods and services ❑Economic Growth can come from two sources: ❑ Increase in Factors of Production – resources used to produce goods and services (Land, Labor and Capital) ❑ Technological Improvement – improvement in the technical means of producing goods and services  Economic Growth Economic growth results in an outward shift of the PPF because production Quantity of coconuts possibilities are expanded. 35 E 30 The economy A can now 25 produce more of everything. 20 Production is initially at point 15 A (20 fish and 25 coconuts), 10 → it can move 5 to point E (25 Original New fish and 30 PPF PPF coconuts). 0 10 20 25 30 40 50 Quantity of fish  Production Possibilities for Two Castaways Quantity of coconuts (a) Tom’s Production Possibilities 30 Tom’s consumption without trade 9 Tom’s PPF 0 28 40 Quantity of fish  Production Possibilities for Two Castaways Quantity of coconuts (a) Hank’s Production Possibilities 20 Hank’s consumption without trade 8 Hank’s PPF 0 6 10 Quantity of fish Tom and Hank’s Opportunity Costs Tom’s Hank’s Opportunity Opportunity Cost Cost One fish 3/4 coconut 2 coconuts One 4/3 fish 1/2 fish coconut Specialize and Trade Both castaways are better off when they each specialize in what they are good at and trade. It’s a good idea for Tom to catch the fish for both of them, because his opportunity cost of a fish in terms of coconuts not gathered is only 3/4 of a coconut, versus 2 coconuts for Hank. Correspondingly, it’s a good idea for Hank to gather coconuts for the both of them. His opportunity costs is less, only 1/2 of a fish to 4/3 fish for Tom.  Comparative Advantage and Gains from Trade (a) Tom’s Production and Consumption (b) Hank’s Production and Consumption Quantity of coconuts Quantity of coconuts 30 Tom’s consumption without trade Hank’s production with trade Tom’s consumption with trade 20 Hank’s consumption with trade Tom’s production 10 10 Hank’s consumption 9 with trade 8 without trade Tom's Hank's PPF PPF 0 28 30 40 Quantity of fish 0 6 10 Quantity of fish  How the Castaways Gain from Trade Both Tom and Hank experience gains from trade: ▪ Tom’s consumption of fish increases by two, and his consumption of coconuts increases by one. ▪ Hank’s consumption of fish increases by four, and his consumption of coconuts increases by two. Comparative vs. Absolute Advantage An individual has a comparative advantage in producing a good or service if the opportunity cost of producing the good is lower for that individual than for other people. An individual has an absolute advantage in an activity if he or she can do it better than other people. Having an absolute advantage is not the same thing as having a comparative advantage. You can have an absolute advantage in both goods and still benefit from trade. Tom vs. Hank – Absolute vs. Comparative Tom has an absolute advantage in both activities: he can produce more output with a given amount of input (in this case, his time) than Hank. But Tom can indeed benefit from a deal with Hank because comparative, not absolute, advantage is the basis for mutual gain. So Hank, despite his absolute disadvantage, even in coconuts, has a comparative advantage in coconut gathering. Meanwhile Tom, who can use his time better by catching fish, has a comparative disadvantage in coconut-gathering.  Comparative Advantage and International Trade (a) The U.S. Production Possibilities Frontier (b) Canadian Production Possibilities Frontier Quantity of aircraft Quantity of aircraft 3,000 Canadian production with trade U.S. consumption without trade U.S. consumption Canadian with trade 2,000 consumption without trade 1,500 1,500 U.S. Canadian 1,000 production consumption with trade with trade U.S. Canadian PPF PPF 0 1 2 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 Quantity of pork (millions of Quantity of pork (millions of tons) tons) Comparative Advantage and International Trade ❑Just like the example of Tom and Hank, the U.S. and Canada can both achieve mutual gains from trade. ❑If the U.S. concentrates on producing pork and ships some of its output to Canada, while Canada concentrates on aircraft and ships some of its output to the U.S., both countries can consume more than if they insisted on being self-sufficient.  Attention!! Misunderstanding Comparative Advantage A common mistake is to confuse comparative advantage with absolute advantage. Ex.: U.S. vs. Japan in 1980s: ▪ Commentators: “U.S. might soon have no comparative advantage in anything” ▪ Wrong! They meant “absolute advantage”  Pajama Republics ▪ Poor countries tend to have low productivity in clothing manufacturing but even lower productivity in other industries. ▪ Comparing per capita income with the share of the clothing industry in manufacturing employment shows a strong effect. Transactions: The Circular-Flow Diagram ❑Trade takes the form of barter when people directly exchange goods or services they have for goods or services they want. ❑The circular-flow diagram is a model that represents the transactions in an economy by flows around a circle. ❑Households buy goods and services from firms ❑Firms buy factors of production from households ❑Inner Flow = goods and services ❑Outer Flow = money The Circular-Flow Diagram Money Households Money Goods and Factors services Factor Markets Goods and Factors services Firms Money Money Circular-Flow of Economic Activities ❑A household is a person or a group of people that share their income. ❑A firm is an organization that produces goods and services for sale. ❑The markets for goods and services is where firms sell goods and services that they produce to households. ❑The factor markets are where firms buy the resources they need to produce—factors of production.  Circular-Flow of Economic Activities ❑Ultimately, factor markets determine the economy’s income distribution: how total income is divided among the owners of the various factors of production.  Case example Rich Nation, Poor Nation ▪ Look at the labels inside your clothing. ▪ Most clothing is manufactured outside of the United States. ▪ These countries are typically much poorer than the United States usually because they are less productive- they cannot produce as much from a given quantity of resources as comparable firms in the United States. ▪ This is ‘comparative advantage’ – they can make clothing at a lower opportunity cost than the US – while the US can make other goods at a lower opportunity cost. Positive vs. Normative Economics ❑Positive economics is the branch of economic analysis that describes the way the economy actually works. ❑Statement of fact ❑‘what is’ ❑Normative economics makes prescriptions about the way the economy should work. ❑Statement of opinion ❑‘what ought to be’ ❑A forecast is a simple prediction of the future.  Positive vs. Normative Economics ❑Economists can determine correct answers for positive questions, but typically not for normative questions, which involve value judgments. ❑There are exceptions are when policies designed to achieve a certain prescription can be clearly ranked in terms of efficiency. ❑It is important to understand that economists don’t use complex models to show “how clever they are,” but rather because they are “not clever enough” to analyze the real world as it is.  When and Why Economists Disagree There are two main points on which economists disagree: Which simplifications to make in a model Values  Case example When Economists Agree ▪ “If all the economists in the world were laid end to end, they still couldn’t reach a conclusion” ▪ A survey by the American Economic Association published in May of 1992 in the American Economic Review reported that in fact many economists do agree. ▪ At the top, more than 90 percent of the economists agreed that tariffs and import quotas usually reduce general economic welfare. ▪ There is a lot of common ground but also much disagreement.  Case example Economists in Government ▪Economists play an important role in the business world and also in government. ▪One of their most important functions is to make economic policy. ▪In the United States, a key role is played by the Council of Economic Advisors. ▪Economists are also active in the Bureau of Labor Statistics and the Federal Reserve as well as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.  1 of 3 Summary 1. Almost all economics is based on models. An important assumption in economic models is the other things equal assumption (ceteris paribus), which allows analysis of the effect of a change in one factor by holding all other relevant factors unchanged. 2. One important economic model is the production possibility frontier. It illustrates: opportunity cost, efficiency, and economic growth. There are two basic sources of growth: an increase in factors of production, resources such as land, labor, capital, and human capital, inputs that are not used up in production, and improved technology.  2 of 3 Summary 3.Another important model is comparative advantage, which explains the source of gains from trade between individuals and countries. Everyone has a comparative advantage in something. This is often confused with absolute advantage, an ability to produce a particular good or service better than anyone else. 4.In the simplest economies, people barter or trade goods and services for one another—rather than trade them for money, as in a modern economy. The circular-flow diagram represents transactions within the economy as flows of goods, services, and money between households and firms. These transactions occur in markets for goods and services and factor markets.  3 of 3 Summary 5. Economists use economic models both for positive economics, which describes how the economy works, and for normative economics, which prescribes how the economy should work. Positive economics often involves making forecasts. Economists can determine correct answers for positive questions, but typically not for normative questions, which involve value judgments. 6. There are two main reasons economists disagree. One, they may disagree about which simplifications to make in a model. Two, economists may disagree—like everyone else—about values.