Introduction to Anatomy PDF

OBJECTIVES  Anatomical Position  Standard reference position  Body is upright  Feet together  Face looking forward  Mouth close and facial expression neutral  Eyes open focused on something in the distance  Arms at side, Palms of hand forward, pad of thumb turned 900 Anat...

OBJECTIVES  Anatomical Position  Standard reference position  Body is upright  Feet together  Face looking forward  Mouth close and facial expression neutral  Eyes open focused on something in the distance  Arms at side, Palms of hand forward, pad of thumb turned 900 Anatomical planes  Sagittal Planes  Sagittal plane - vertical planes passing through the body parallel in the median plane; divides body to right and left side  Median sagittal plane - vertical plane passing longitudinally dividing it to equal right and left halves  Anatomical Planes  Coronal plane - vertical plane passing through the body at right angles to the median plane  dividing body to anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions  Horizontal (transverse or axial) planes - planes passing the body at right angle to the median and coronal planes  dividing the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts.  Anatomical Plane  Transverse plane vs Horizontal plane  Perpendicular to the long axis of the structure  Divides structure in a cross sectional orientation Transverse plane Terms of Relationship and Comparison  Terms of Relationship and Comparison  SUPERFICIAL, INTERMEDIATE, DEEP - terms used in dissection to describe the position of one structure with respect to other structures  Superficial - near to surface  Intermediate - between a superficial and deep structure  Deep - farther from surface  Anterior and Posterior denotes relation of structure as to relation if located toward the anterior or posterior surface of body  Anterior  Posterior  Front  Back  Ventral  Dorsal  Palmar for  Dorsal for hand hand  Plantar ** for  Dorsal*** foot for foot  Medial and lateral relation of structure in relation to midline or median plane  Lateral  Medial  Farther  Closer to from the median median plane plane  Superior and Inferior term used denoting level with reference to the upper and lower ends of the body  Superior  Inferior  Cranial  Caudal  cephalic  Tail/feet  Proximal vs Distal describes positions relative to the core, root or attached end of the reference point  Proximal  Distal  Closer to the  Further away core/root from the core  Internal vs external describe locations relative to center of a structure or space  Internal  External  Inside  Outside of the the structure structure Terms of Relationship and Comparison  Inferior/Caudal - nearer to feet/tail  Superior/Cranial - nearer to head/vertex/cranium  For the following slides, give the correct term to determine the relationship of the following structures 1. The ankle is (proximal/distal) to the foot 2. The abdomen (dorsal/ventral) to the back 3. The thumb is in the (medial/lateral) of the hand 4. The elbow is (proximal/distal) to the shoulder 5. The brain is (external/internal) to the skull  Terms of Laterality  Unilateral - structures on one side only  Bilateral - structures having right and left members  Ipsilateral - occurring on the same side of the body  Contralateral - occurring on the opposite side of the body Terms of Movement  Terms of Movement  Flexion - decreasing the angle between the bone or parts of the body  Extension - increasing the angle between the bones and parts of the body  hyperextension - extension beyond the normal limit  Terms of Movement  dorsiflexion - describes extension at the ankle joint/ extension of ankle  plantarflexion - turns foot toward plantar surface/ flexion of ankle DORSIFLEXION NEUTRAL PLANTARFLEXION  Terms of Movement  Abduction - movement away from the median plane in coronal plane  Adduction - movement toward the median plane in the coronal plane  Terms of Movement  Rotation - turning or revolving a part of the body around its longitudinal axis  Medial rotation (internal) - brings the anterior surface of a limb closer to the median plane  Lateral rotation (external) - bring the anterior surface away from median plane  Terms of Movement  Circumduction - a circular movement  a combination of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction occurring in such a way that the distal end of the part moves in a circle  Opposition - movement by which the pad of the first digit (thumb) is brought to another digit  Terms of Movement  Protraction - anterior movement of shoulder  Retraction - posterior movement of shoulder  Terms of Movement Protrusion - movement Retrusion - is a movement posteriorly anteriorly (forward); used for (backward) mandible  Terms of Movement  Elevation - raises or moves a part superiorly  Depression - lowers of moves a part inferiorly  Terms of Movement  Eversion - moves the sole of foot away from the median plane (turning sole laterally)  Inversion - moves the sole of foot toward the median plane (turning sole medially)  Terms of Movement  Pronation - movement of forearm and hand that rotates the radius medially around its longitudinal axis  palm faces posteriorly and dorsum faces anteriorly  Supination - movement of forearm and hand that rotates the radius laterally around its longitudinal axis  dorsum of the hand faces posteriorly and palm faces anteriorly Identify the movement of the following joint Musculoskeletal System  Fascia  Fascia – connecting varying amounts of fat  Functions:  Separates, supports and interconnect organs and structures  Allows movement of one structure relative to another  Transit of vessel and nerves  2 types:  Superficial (subcutaneous)  Deep  FASCIA  Superficial fascia or subcutaneous  Mixture of loose areolar and adipose tissue uniting the dermis to the underlying deep fascia  FASCIA  Deep fascia  Membranous layer of connective tissue that invests the muscle and other deep structures  In the joints, it becomes thickened to form restraining bands called retinacula to hold underlying tendons in position or serve as pulley where tendons move  Fascia  Superficial  Deep (subcutaneous)  Just beneath dermis  Deep, organized connective tissue  Made up of loose  Outer layer is attached to connective tissue deep surface of superficial containing large amount fascia; inward extensions of fat form intermuscular septa that compartmentalize groups of  Thickness varies muscle  Allows movement of the  Surrounds individual muscle skin over deeper areas of  Separate lining of abdominal the body and passage of cavity from fascia covering surface of muscle vessels and nerve, and  Extraperitoneal fascia/ source of energy (fat) endothoracic fascia  Muscular System  Functions  Produces movement  Gives form to the body  Provides heat  Muscular System  Types  Skeletal Muscle  Cardiac Muscle  Smooth Muscle  Skeletal Muscle Tissue  Name is based on its location (attached to the bones of the skeleton)  Striated – contains alternating light and dark bands visible under a light microscope  Muscles are voluntary because it can be made to contract or relax by conscious control  Single muscle fiber is long, cylindrical in shape and has many nuclei at the periphery of cells  Individual muscle fibers are arranged parallel to each other Skeletal Muscle  Muscular System  Skeletal Muscle (Striated or Voluntary muscle)  attached to the skeleton and fascia of limbs, body wall and head/neck  large, strong and unbranched with transverse striations  stimulated by voluntary or reflex by the somatic nervous system  Has 2 or more attachments  Muscular system  Origin – attachment that moves the least  Insertion – attachment that moves the most  Belly – the fleshy part of muscle  Tendon – ends of muscles attached to bone  Aponeurosis – flattened muscles attached by thin strong sheet of fibrous tissue  Raphe – interdigitation of the tendinous ends of fiber  Muscular System  Skeletal Muscle  Classification according to shape  flat muscle - parallel fibers with an aponeurosis (external oblique)  pennate muscle - featherlike in the arrangement of their fascicle (deltoid)  Bipennate, unipennate or multipennate  Muscular System  Skeletal Muscle  Classification according to shape  fusiform - spindle shape (biceps brachii)  quadrate (has four equal sides (pronator quadratus)  Muscular System  Skeletal Muscle  Classification according to shape  circular or sphincteral - surrounds orifice (orbicularis oris)  Muscular System  Skeletal Muscle  Classification according to movement  Prime movers or agonist - main muscle that activate a specific movement of the body; contract actively to produce the desired movement  Antagonist - muscles that oppose the action of prime mover  synergist - prevent the intervening joint movement when a prime mover passes over more than one joint, they stabilize a joint around which the movement is occurring and in turn help agonist function effectively  Fixator –stabilizes the origin of prime mover so that the prime mover can act more efficiently  SKELETAL SYSTEM  Bone - a highly specialized, hard form of connective tissue that forms most of the skeleton and is the chief supporting tissue of the body  SKELETAL SYSTEM  Functions:  protection of vital structures  support for the body  mechanical basis for movement  storage for salts (e.g. calcium)  continuous supply of new blood cells  SKELETAL SYSTEM  Cartilage  resilient, semirigid form of connective tissue  Avascular; has no blood vessels, lymphatics or nerves, nutrition is by diffusion  Functions:  Support soft tissues  Provide smooth, gliding surface for bone articulation & joints  Enable development and growth of long bone  Types:  Hyaline  Elastic  fibrocartilage  Cartilage  Hyaline cartilage  Most common, matrix has moderate amount of collagen fiber  Plays an important part in growth the length of long bones  Has great resistance to wear and covers articular cartilage  Incapable of repair  Cartilage  Hyaline  found as supportive tissues in the nose, ears, trachea, larynx, and smaller respiratory tubes  articular cartilage; reduces friction and acts as shock- absorbing tissue.  forms the costal cartilages where ribs attach to the sternum and is the precursor to bone in most of the embryonic skeleton.  Cartilage  Fibrocartilage  Matrix contains limited number of cells and ground substance with substanstial amount of collagen fibers  Found between TMJ, sternoclavicular joint and knee  fibrocartilage a good shock- absorbing material in the pubic symphysis and intervertebral disks.  If damage repairs itself slowly  Have poor blood supply in joint disc thus do not repair themselves when damaged  Cartilage Elastic Cartilage - matrix contains collagen with large number of of elastic fibers -is flexible -Repairs itself with fibrous tissue - examples: epiglottis and cartilage of the ear (external) lobes, pharyngotympanic (eusatachian) tubes, epiglottis  Skeletal System  Bone has 2 forms  Compact bone or trabecular  Solid mass  Spongy or Cancellous bone  Consists of branching trabeculae that are arranged to resist the stress and strains  SKELETAL SYSTEM  Classification of bones  According to shape  Long bone  short bone  flat bone  irregular bone  sesamoid  Long bone -Found in limbs -Length is greater than breadth -Have tubular shaft (diaphysis) and epiphysis -Shaft contains marrow cavity with bone marrow -Outer portion is composed of compact bone covered by periosteum  Short bone -Found in hands and feet -Cuboidal in shape -Composed of cancellous bone covered with thin layer of compact bone  Flat bone - Composed of thin inner and outer layers of compact bone called tables and separated by cancellous bone called diploe  Irregular bone  Thin shell of compact bone with interior made of cancellous bone  SKELETAL SYSTEM  Consist of two main parts;  Axial Skeleton - bones of head, neck and trunk  Appendicular Skeleton - bones of the limbs including those forming the pectoral and pelvic girdles  SKELETAL SYSTEM  Bone Surface markings – structural features adapted for specific functions  Two major types:  Depressions and openings  Form joints or allow the passage of soft tissues  Processes  Projections or outgrowth that either help form joint or serve as attachment points for connective tissue  Surface land marks  Processes - Projections or outgrowth that either help form joint or serve as attachment points for connective tissue  SKELETAL SYSTEM  Markings and features of bones Processes that form joints  Condyle – large, rounded articular area  Facet - smooth, flat area, usually covered with cartilage where a bone articulates with another bone Processes that form attachment point for connective tissue  Crest - ridge of bone  Epicondyle - eminence superior to a condyle  SKELETAL SYSTEM  Line - linear elevation  Spinous process - projecting spinelike part  Trochanter - large blunt elevation  Tubercle - small raised eminence  Tuberosity - large rounded elevation  Surface Marking Depressions and openings  Form joints or allow the passage of soft tissues  SKELETAL SYSTEM Depression and openings  Fossa - shallow depression  Fissure – narrow slit between adjacent parts of bone through which blood vessels or nerve pass  Foramen – passage/opening through which blood vessels, nerves or ligament pass  Meatus – tubelike opening Process – extension of a bone away from the bone’s surface. Condyle – rounded eminence that articulates with a depression or a fossa on another bone. Epicondyle – raised, rounded area located above a condyle. Trochanter – very large, roughened, raised area found on the femur. The word "trochanter" is the Greek word for "a runner." A runner runs thanks to his or her femur. Tuberosity – similar to a trochanter but smaller. Crest – narrow ridge of bone. Spine – sharp, slender projection. Head – rounded, enlarged end of a long bone, Sits atop a narrow portion of the bone called the neck. Fossa – shallow depression that usually articulates with a condyle or head of another bone. Sometimes referred to as cavities. Foramen (pl. foramina) – hole for passage of nerves, blood vessels, or the spinal cord. Meatus – canal-like passageway. Facet - Smooth flat articular surface. Example: Superior Articular facet of vertebra. Forms parts of joints. Ramus – arm-like bar of bone Line - narrow ridge or border. Example: linea aspera of femur.  SKELETAL SYSTEM  JOINTS  articulation or junction between two or more bones or parts of a skeleton  SKELETAL SYSTEM ◼ Classification of joints according to function/movement ◼ Synarthroses = no/little movement ◼ Amphiarthroses = slight movement ◼ Diarthroses = great movement Type Movement Example Synarthrosis None Sutures, Teeth, (minimal) Epiphyseal plates, 1st rib and costal cart. Amphiarthrosis Slight Distal Tibia/fibula Intervertebral discs Pubic symphysis Diarthrosis Great Glenohumeral joint Knee joint TMJ  SKELETAL SYSTEM  Classification of Joints according to those separated by a cavity and not  True Joints or Synovial joints - are united by an articular cartilage with a joint cavity enclosed by a joint capsule containing synovial fluid  False Joints or Solid joints - joint without articulating cavity, with no capsule and no synovial fluid  Components of SYNOVIAL JOINTS: (Structural Joint Classification continued) ◼ Articular cartilage: hyaline; covers ends of both bones articulating ◼ Synovial (joint) cavity: space holding synovial fluid ◼ Articular capsule: Made of 2 layers ◼ Fibrous: external, dense CT for strength & stabilize joint ◼ Synovial membrane: internal, produces synovial fluid  Components of SYNOVIAL JOINTS: (Structural Joint Classification continued) ◼ Synovial fluid: viscous; in capsule and articular cartilages ◼ Reinforcing ligaments: extracapsular/intracapsular ◼ Nerves + vessels: Highly innervated, Highly vascular ◼ articular disc (fibrocartilage) - improves the fit of 2 bones to increase stability ◼ Fat pads  Skeletal System  Types of True Joint/Synovial joint  Based on shape of their articular surface, synovial joints are described as plane (flat), hinge (ginglymus), pivot, condylar (ellipsoid), saddle, ball and socket  Based on movement, universal joint are described as uniaxial (movement in one plane), biaxial (movement in two planes) and multi-axial (movement in three planes)  Skeletal System  Types of Synovial/True Joint Based on Shape  PLANE JOINTS - (Irregular); opposed surfaces of bones are flat; permits gliding or sliding movements  examples: acromioclavicular joints, intercarpal, intertarsal, sternoclavicular  Skeletal System  Types of Synovial/True Joint  HINGE JOINTS - (ginglymus); one plane joint which permits flexion and extension movements only  example - elbow, knee, ankle and interphalangeal  Skeletal System  Types of Synovial/True Joints  SADDLE JOINT - are joints with opposing surfaces shaped like a saddle; allows flexion/extension, abduction/adduction and opposition  example: carpometacarpal joint of the thumb  Skeletal System  Types of Synovial/True Joints  CONDYLOID JOINT - (ovoid);also known as ellipsoid; the convex oval shape projection of one bone fits into the oval shaped depression of another bone; allows flexion and extension; abduction and adduction and circumduction  example: metacarpophalangeal joint  Skeletal System  Types of True Joints  PIVOT JOINTS (trochoid) - uniaxial joint; articulation of a rounded or pointed surface and partly by a ligament; allows rotation  example: atlanto-axial joint; superior radio-ulnar joint  Skeletal System  Types of Synovial/True Joints  BALL AND SOCKET (universal, spheroidal, enarthrodial) - joint allowing the following movements: flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, rotation and circumduction  example: hip and shoulder joint Solid Joints (false joint)  Skeletal System  Connection between skeletal elements where adjacent surfaces are linked together either by fibrous connective tissue or by cartilage (fibrocartilage)  Types of Solid or False Joints  Fibrous joint (Sutures) - joined by fibrous tissue  examples: sutures of the skull, syndesmoses (e.i. interosseous membrane of forearm), gomphosis or dentoalveolar syndesmosis  Skeletal System  Types of Solid or False Joints  Cartilaginous joints - are united by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage  Primary (synchondrosis) - temporary unions as joints of epiphyseal plate; allows growth in the length of the bone; where two ossification enters in developing bone remain separated by a layer of cartilage  Example: between first rib and manubrium, epiphyseal plate; between head and shaft of developing long bone  Secondary (symphyses) - strong slightly movable joints united by fibrocartilage  example intervertebral disc, symphysis pubis  Skeletal System  Stability of the joint depends on: 1. articular surface - Stable joints: hip, ankle - Unstable joint: knee, acromioclavicular 2. Ligaments - Fibrous ligaments - Elastic ligaments 3. Muscle tone  STUDENT ACTIVITY  Classify the following joint based on movement allowed. (uniaxial, biaxial, multiaxial) 1. Hinge 2. Ball and socket 3. Plane 4. Pivot 5. Condyloid 6. Saddle  Student Activity CLASSIFYING JOINTS What joint? What movement? What type of Joint? What movement What joint? What movement  Examples of joints Joint Classification movement Suture Fibrous none Temporomandibular Combined hinge & planar Depression, elevation, (TMJ) protract, retract, lateral displacement, sl. Rotation of mandible Atlanto-occipital Condyloid Flexion and extension of head, sl lateral flexion Atlanto axial Pivot Rotation of head Intervertebral Cartilaginous (between Flex, extend, lateral bodies) flexion & rotation Planar (between arches) Vertebrocostal Synovial planar Gliding Sternocostal Cartilaginous (between Slight gliding (bet. 2nd to sternum & 1st rib), planar 7th) between sternum and 2nd th Joint Classification movement Lumbosacral Symphysis between body Flex, extend, lateral and base; synovial planar flexion, rotation between articular facets Sternoclavicular Synovial planar and pivot Gliding with limited movements in nearly every direction Acromioclavicular Planar synovial Gliding and rotation of scapula on clavicle Radioulnar Synovial pivot Rotation of forearm Wrist (radiocarpal) Synovial condyloid Flex, extend, abduct, adduct, circumduct and hyperextension of wrist Intercarpal Synovial plain Gliding, flexion and abduction at midcarpal Carpometacarpal Saddle (thumb) Flex, exxtend, abduct, adduct,circumduct Plane (for 2nd – 4th carpals) gliding Joint Classification movement Metacarpophalangeal and Synovial condyloid Flex, extend, abduction, metatarsophalangeal adduction, and circumduction of phalanges Interphalangeal Synovial hinge Flexion and extension of phalanges Sacroiliac Synovial planar Slight gliding Pubic symphysis Cartilaginous Slight movement Tibiofibular Synovial planar at Slight gliding at proximal, proximal, fibrous at the slight rotation of fibula distal during dorsiflexion Ankle (talocrural) Synovial hinge Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion of ankle Intertarsal Synovial planar Inversion & eversion of foot Tarsometatarsal Synovial planar Slight gliding Principles of anatomy & physiology p. 257 Reminder: There will be a quiz about the topic in our next meeting.