Confucius on Order and Harmony PDF

Confucius on Order and Harmony - Confucius = Latinised form of Kong Fuzi 孔夫⼦ (Master Kong) - DC Lau translation of Analects = recommended - Taught during a period of increasing political turmoil - Zhou Dynasty once effectively controlled regional states, but declining central authority led to int...

Confucius on Order and Harmony - Confucius = Latinised form of Kong Fuzi 孔夫⼦ (Master Kong) - DC Lau translation of Analects = recommended - Taught during a period of increasing political turmoil - Zhou Dynasty once effectively controlled regional states, but declining central authority led to intensification of conflicts between states - 8th to 5th century BCE - Spring and Autumn Period - 52 states conquered by other states The Analects/Lunyu 論語 - Confucian ideas are preserved in the Analects/Lunyu - Compilation of dialogues and conversations of Confucius and his disciples - complied during the Han Dynasty - Great impact in Sinosphere and beyond - Confucius can be found on the East Pediment of the US Supreme Court Building Quotes from the Analects 1) If the Dao (Way) prevailed in the world, I would not then have to toil in changing it (Analects 18.6) - Strong sense of mission - Dao 道 = the way - umbrella concept which would help us better understand Confucius’ teachings - term NOT coined by Confucius, was part of the common philosophy of the time - Each philosopher claimed their own version of the Dao (way) to be the best and correct way to restore harmony to the land, or achieve what they saw to be the highest good - Dao features prominently in Lunyu 2) Hearing the Dao in the morning, one would be content even if one were to die that evening (Analects 4.8) - Hearing = rich in meaning as it involves listening, asking questions, understanding, and putting virtues into practice -Does not show the meaning of the Dao in Confucian philosophy, but shows its tantamount importance 3) Human beings are capable of broadening the Dao. It is not the Dao that broadens human beings (Analects 15.29) - Dao is something we ought to uphold and develop 4) (According to disciple) The junzi (gentleman) cultivates the roots. When the roots are established, the Dao will grow (Analects 1.2) - Dao is not static - Roots/basic fundamentals must be cultivated - A junzi (gentleman) will make the Dao grow and flourish Junzi 君⼦ - Junzi - traditionally meant the son of a noble/lord, but in the Analects it took a wider ethical meaning and came to mean something that can be achieved - Ideal human being and embodiment of the Dao, and at the extreme, no less than a true sage - Used to refer to men only, now is a gender neutral term What is a junzi-ideal person —> Dedication to learning a) The junzi realised the Dao through learning (Analects 19.7) b) Although many other people would be as conscientious and trustworthy as he was, they would not be surpass him in his love for learning (Analects 5.28) c) At fifteen, I set my heart and mind to on learning (Analects 2.4) - Pre-Conficius: 6 Fields of Learning or Six Arts - Rites (for specific occasions such as passage) 禮, Music 樂, Archery 射, Charioteering 御, Writing 書, Arithmetic 數 - kind of education Confucius himself would’ve had - Equal importance on intellectual, cultural, cognitive and physical training —> indicates what was essential to be an accomplished person in Ancient China - Poetry, History and Divination were also important - Objective of learning is culture ⽂, and the junzi ideal person is culturally accomplished d) (According to disciple Yan Hui) The Master is wonderfully adept in guiding his students step by step. He broadens me with culture and disciplines me with the rites (Analects 9.11) e) The junzi-ideal person devotes himself to “extending learning in culture” 博學於⽂ and “bringing himself into line with ritual propriety” 約之以禮 - Learning serves to broaden intellectual horizons, equip us to make connections across disciplines and knowledge domains, and find solutions to problems - Ritual rightness/propriety serves to prescribe boundaries to behaviour and regulating conduct - Learning and cultural accomplishment are both important to transform an individual into a junzi, either one or the other on its own is not sufficient f) If a person is strong in substance but lacking in cultural refinement, he will become boorish. If he is strong in cultural refinement but lacking in substance, he will become frivolous. Only when a person is finely balanced in culture and substance, he will become a junzi (Analects 6.18) g) The Master focused on these four in his teaching: culture ⽂; conduct ⾏; conscientiousness 忠; and trustworthiness 信 (Analects 7.25) - Learning = ethical cultivation/self-development h) Scholars of ancient times studied for themselves, scholars today study for others (Analects 14.24) Religion in Ancient China - Divination was important due to religious society of Ancient China - Ancestor worship prominent in past and present - Works of divination developed into the I Ching 易經 or “Classic of Changes” - Central religious concept - Heaven 天 - deity of the highest order which provides sustenance and purpose for humanities The Primacy of Li 禮 - Two main basic concepts of the Confucian Vision - Ren 仁 and Li 禮 - A junzi-ideal person is a personification of these two characteristics - Li - translated into Ritual, Rites, or Propriety - Originally meant religious rituals - still important to Confucius and the Analects as they served as the link between the human world and heaven - Rituals can only achieve their intended purposes if carried out properly - arrangement of ritual utensils, positioning of officiators, proper sequence of actions, clothing etc. - Right procedures AND right attitudes are BOTH important Li in Confucianism - Extended beyond its original religious and ceremonial meaning to mean proper conduct in everyday social exchange as well - Exists in modern times in terms such as 禮拜 (used to mean paying obeisance, now means week), although it no longer carries the older religious/ceremonial meaning of Li - 禮貌 (manners/proper appearance) carries the Confucian meaning of Li - 禮物 (gift) used to refer to ritual offerings - Li is not limited to Chinese culture (eg. bowing in Japanese culture, handshake in Western cultures) Li and the Junzi - Li is the glue that shapes human behaviour and binds people in society together - allows peaceful and mutual beneficial social existence by refining raw human nature into proper conduct - Serves a) a regulative function, and b) a constitutive function - Regulative: organise social interaction and set boundary between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour - Constitutive: repeated practice shape behaviour until it becomes natural instinct, shaping the kind pf person we become Li in the Analects a) The function of Li is that it is harmony that is most valuable (Analects 1.12) - Li brings about harmony by harmonising social interaction and removing rough edges - Proper action must be performed in the right way with the right attitude - Li is the model which we should conduct ourselves in everything we do b) Do not look unless it is in accordance with Li, do not listen unless it is in accordance with Li, do not speak unless it is in accordance with Li, do not move unless it is in accordance with Li (Analects 12.1) - Ideally, Li should pervade behaviour c) If one guides the people by regulations and keeps them in order by means of punishment, they will avoid crossing the line but they would not have a sense of shame. Guide them with virtue, and keep them in order by means of Li, and they would have a sense of shame and come to behave properly by themselves (Analects 2.3) - For Confucius, ideal society is guided by Li, and cannot rely on laws and punishment alone - Li acts as a powerful ethical agent to regulate conduct and reform people - Laws may still be needed but the non-coercive use of Li is the better and more effective way to create a harmonious society - Laws act as extrinsic motivations to conduct oneself, Li creates an intrinsic motivation to conduct oneself d) In being respectful without Li, one risks being tiresome; in being careful without Li, one becomes timid; courage without Li leads to unruliness or disorder. All in all, without Li, one may become rude (Analects 8.2) - Li not only curbs unruly behaviour, it also aims to bring out the best in people Key points of note: 1) While Li prescribes proper conduct, it is not rigid and can change over time - A ceremonial cap of linen is what is traditionally prescribed by Li. Today black silk is used instead. This is more frugal, and I follow the majority. To prostrate oneself before ascending the steps is what is prescribed by Li. Today one does so only after having ascended the steps. This is casual and through going against the majority, I follow the practice of doing so before ascending. (Analects 9.3) - Therefore, Li is not just a matter of following tradition, but moreso maintaining the ethical reasons that underlie the ritual, such as frugality in the first example, and respectfulness in the second - However, the underlying concept of Li cannot be abandoned 2) Li can easily degenerate into empty formalism - Greetings and bowings, and even funeral rites can insincere and meaningless if one does not mean what they do - As a human being and yet he lacks Ren (humanity) - what has he to do with Li? (Analects 3.3) - Therefore, it is clear that Li is incomplete without Ren (humanity) The Centrality of Ren 仁 - Variously translated as humanity, human-heartedness, humaneness, benevolence, goodness, authoritative conduct, perfect virtue Ren in the Analects - If a person sets his heart and mind firmly on Ren, he will be free of malevolence (Analects 4.4) - The junzi never abandons Ren, not even for as short a time as it takes to finish a meal (Analects 4.5) - Men or Ren would not do anything contrary to Ren just to protect their own lives; they would be prepared, on the contrary, to sacrifice themselves in order to complete Ren (Analects 15.9) - Definition of Ren: “Love/care for others” (Analects 12.22) - What you yourself do not desire - do not impose on others ⼰所不 欲，勿施於⼈ (Analects 12.2) - A person of Ren, in wishing to establish himself, also establishes others; in wishing to distinguish himself, he also helps others to achieve distinction (Analects 6.30) Ren and Confucius - Concept of Ren serves to express that makes us truly human - Essential ethical trait and fundamental kindness which makes humans noble - Ren - Confucian conception of ideal humanity exemplified by the junzi - Li requires Ren to become meaningful and achieve its intended harmonising effect - Ren requires Li to find proper expression and achieve its intended purpose of benevolence - To master oneself and return to Li is Ren (Analects 12.1) - Absence of Li implies the absence of Ren and vice versa - Confucianists focus on the view that humanity is made up of relationships - the individual person does not stand in isolation, but is networked Cultivation of Ren - VERY IMPORTANT PASSAGE TO REMEMBER: The junzi cultivates the roots. When the roots are established, the Dao will grow. Now, shouldn’t filial piety and respect for elders be recognised as the roots of Ren? (Analects 1.2) - Filial care and affection act as the basis for Ren - Ren begins at home with natural affection nurtured by kinship - 成⼈ - means adult in modern Chinese, means “complete person” or someone who has realised humanity in the ethical sense in the Analects - The junzi-ideal requires serious effort and discipline to achieve, even within the network of family relations - A scholar engaged in public service must be strong and resolute, for his burden is heavy and his journey is long. He takes Ren as his burden. Is that not heavy? Only with death does his journey come to an end. Is that not long (Analects 8.7) - The virtue and moral character of the junzi is like the wind; the character of a petty person is like grass. When the wind blows over the grass, it is sure to bend. (Analects 12.19) - Virtue is transformative - acts of Li and Ren elicit the same response in kind, creating a virtuous cycle Harmony - Harmonious relationships must be cultivated with Li and Ren to a) ensure they flourish, and b) to expand further the ethical sphere of influence beyond one’s immediate community - Harmony entails peace, prosperity and happiness, while disharmony may benefit a few, but the large majority of people suffer - Harmony cannot be enforced by law and punishment alone, it requires sustained ethical cultivation - As such, all relations should be considered as ethical relations - family ties are not just blood ties, but ethical bonds which serve as a model of social life - Realisation of harmony hinges on fulfilment of individual roles and responsibilities The Junzi - Journey to becoming a complete person and realising the junzi-ideal is a lifelong process, from immersion in a culture of proper conduct to elders at home as a youth, until Li is thoroughly habituated, defining ourselves as individuals - The junzi perseveres despite setbacks and difficulty - In pre-modern China, the emperor occupies a pivotal position in spreading virtue to all corners of his realm by means of humane and benevolent government - People’s needs must be served or the ruler would not live up to the responsibility of his role, and hence lose the legitimacy to rule - The ruler would ideally be assisted by other culturally and ethically accomplished Confucian scholar-officials - Confucian education promotes upward social mobility in a hierarchy, or in other words, a meritocratic system Quote from Liji (Book of Rites): The jade uncut will not form a vessel for use; and if men do not learn, they do not know the Dao (way) - For Confucians, proper conduct must be refined Laozi and Daoism - Daoism rivals Confucianism as one of the main streams of Chinese thought and culture —> main alternative to Confucianism in traditional Chinese thought - Laozi 老⼦ - attributed founder of the Daoist school - Daoism is still a living religious tradition today with an elaborate pantheon and a rich set of doctrines, scriptures, rituals and festivals Laozi - Laozi’s personal life is shrouded in mystery, but is remembered as a senior contempoary of Confucius and served as keeper of archives in the central government - Heated debate for Laozi’s birthplace in Mainland China, mainly between Henan Province and Anhui Province - Confucius is reported to have consulted Laozi on matters about Li - To Daoists, Laozi is a divine being of infinite wisdom, possessing power to deliver salvation to humankind The Laozi/Daodejing - The teachings of Laozi are preserved in a book simply titled “The Laozi” 老⼦, more commonly known as the Daodejing (The Classic of the Way and Virtue) 道德經 - Jing 經 signifies a canonical work, a work of authority - The Daodejing focuses on the concepts of Dao (The Way) and De (Virtue) - Purportedly the second most translated literary work after the Bible - Most likely a collection of short passages attributed to Laozi, compiled over time to take its present form, although historically attributed as the work of Laozi alone - Divided into 81 Chapters - When the Great Dao is abandoned, we have benevolence and rightness… When the six basic family relationships are in disharmony, we have filial concern… (Laozi 18) - Benevolence and filial piety are not natural actions, but rather deliberate, remedial actions - The Daodejing seems to say that there is a natural wholesome goodness that transcends any man-made ethical system - The Dao is not just a means to realising certain ends, but as an natural inherent pristine order which accounts for the harmony and order of the natural environment and human relationships - Human exploitation, such as by the Confucians, has corrupted this natural order - According to Daoists, the Confucian idea of the Dao is not only ineffective in restoring order, but also has damaged the natural order by forcing their own moral standards and agenda - IMPORTANT: Ideas interact and respond to other ideas around them - The Laozi/Daodejing has hundreds of commentaries in pre-modern China from the Han Dynasty onwards, including imperial commentaries by Emperors drawn to the wisdom and interpretive challenge of the Daodejing The Dao - Chapter 1 - Contrast between ideas that are claimed to be capable of establishing harmony against the “constant Dao” - Constant Dao cannot be pinned down and captured fully using words and language, and also it is that which gives birth to the universe and all living things in it - The Dao that can be spoken of is not the constant Dao. The name that can be named is not the constant name. The nameless was the beginning of heaven and earth; the named was the mother of the myriad creatures (Laozi 1) - The Great Dao ⼤道 is very even, but people like (to take) byways - Nominal usage of Dao conveys what is deemed the right or proper course and the means to bring it about Dao 道 and Virtue 德 - The Laozi can be seen as a critique of the various normative teachings that all propose their way to be the right way - Any articulation of the Dao is one sided and only represents a partial point of view - If the Dao is meant to lead us, then the Laozi’s criticism is that any normative definition of the Dao, because of their partiality, is misleading Dao and Nothingness - One who knows (the Dao) does not speak (Laozi 56) - This is called the shape that has no shape (Laozi 14) - Shows that the Dao is not an object or thing with identifiable features, and has no shape or form, and hence escapes human perception and language - I know not its name, so I style it “the Dao” (Laozi 25) - the Dao is not a proper name, but simply a provisional placeholder - Dao must be understood as “not being” or “not having” as it has no material form - Wu 無 - Material things, however, have shape and other charactertistics of being, and hence described as “being” or “having” - You 有 - Wu is often translated as nothing, nothingness, or non-being - Dao cannot be described as anything in particular, so it can be described as being empty - emptiness is an important concept in Daoist ethics - The Laozi signifies the mystery as well as the inexhaustibility and unlimited capacity of the Dao - Therefore, the Dao can be likened to an empty vessel - empty in perception, but in fact always full (in the case of a vessel - filled with air if not filled with water) - The Dao is empty, yet use with not drain it (Laozi 4) - even though there is no discernible substance, its functional capacity is never exhausted/depleted Dao and the Origin of Things - The nameless was the beginning of heaven and earth; the named was the mother of the myriad creatures (Laozi 1) - Since all things have You - specific features - the Laozi states “The myriad creatures in the world are born from Something, and Something from Nothing” (Laozi 40) - Dao gave birth to One, One gave/gives birth to Two, Two gave/ gives birth to Three, Three gave/gives birth to the then thousand things (Laozi 42) - Daoist creation involves differentiation from unity to multiplicity - Common interpretation is that the Dao represents the ultimatre source of qi 氣 - the energy-like life force that brought forth creation - “One” is traditionally interpreted as the original, unified force of qi - “Two” is traditionally interpreted as the Yin 陰 (heavier, solidified to form earth) and Yang 陽 (lighter, rose to form heaven) - “Three” is traditionally interpreted as heaven, earth and humans (formed from the harmonious blending of Yin and Yang forces) - The myriad creatures carry on their backs the Yin and embrace in their arms the Yang and are the blending of the generative forces of the two (Laozi 42) - Dao is defined in the Oxford English Dict as the “absolute entity which is the source of the universe” - “Gives birth” implies that duality presupposes unity, while “Gave birth” interprets it as a cosmological event - both are NOT mutually exclusive Virtue or De - Not confined to morality - The Dao gives them life, virtue rears them (Laozi 51) - Metaphor: a mother not only gives birth to her offspring but also raises them - Oxford English Dict on “De” - a) Essence of Dao inherent in all beings (Daoism); b) Moral virtue (Confucianism) - De translated as virtue, virtuosity, potency, efficacy, integrity, power - Concept of De has a sense of inherent power and capacity endowed by the Dao - Nature and human beings both reflect the workings of the Dao - In nature, the regularity of seasons & rich biodiversity of life for nature; and in humans, the capacity to think, feel and act naturally and ethically reflect the De endowed by the Dao - Confucians believe virtue can be cultivated, but Daoists believe that the only genuine virtue belongs to the natural Dao - Ex 1. Confucians emphasise filial piety and care and how it must be learnt through Li, while for Daoists there is natural affection between parent and child that does not need to be conceptualised - Ex 2. Confucians argue to model ourselves after the junzi, but “The Dao models after what is naturally so” (Laozi 52) - Nature/Natural - Ziran ⾃然 - literally means “what is so of itself” - opposite of artificiality - Being natural signals authenticity, genuineness, honesty, openness and sincerity - Concept of Ziran still captures the Chinese imagination on conceptions such as about love and beauty to this day Naturalness ⾃然 and Nonaction 無為 Naturalness ⾃然 - Operates under certain constant principles, not haphazard - the De (virtue) of the Dao expresses itself in the order of Ziran, of naturalness and spontaneity - Laozi believes that the inherent order is disrupted when nature is made to serve only man’s interests, when man is seen as being at the top of the value chain - The highest virtue is (in fact) not virtuous (Laozi 38) - Ziran is fundamentally different from artificial virtues and ethics - When all in the world know the beautiful to be beautiful, there already is the ugly. When all know the good to be good, there already is the bad (Laozi 2) - Debates over conflicting values can disrupt the harmonious community of the world into a divided company of discord, mistrust and hostilities - Discord ultimately stems from inflamed, corrupted and unrestrained human desire - Do not promote the worthy, so that people will not become contentious. Do not value goods that are difficult to obtain, so that people will not turn to thievery (Laozi 3) - When empirical distinctions are turned into value judgments and value distinctions, they are certain to cause serious problems - Eg. when things or features such as possession of consumer goods, wealth, reputation, being slim, skin colour etc. are regarded as desirable, there will inevitably be contention in society - Ziran does not suggest pitting nature against culture and withdrawing from society, rather it suggests a new way of looking at culture and society as ideally stemming from the perceived order of the universe - Daoism focuses on pivoting humans from the tyranny of desire towards naturalness and simplicity - one should dispel self-interest and ego-inflation and abide by nonaction - or Wuwei 無為 Nonaction 無為 - Also translated as “non-coercive action”, “non-assertive action”, “non- contentious action” or “effortless action” - Practical expression of Ziran in real life - One should do nothing that would interfere with the inherent order of nature, and certainly not anything that destroys or abuses the natural order - The Dao never acts yet nothing is left undone (Laozi 37) - Parallel between Wuwei and consummate skill or virtuosity - being such a virtuoso that one does not have to think when they perform - Demonstrated in “The Zhuangzi” - for example in a story where a cook displays a fantastic set of skills in carving an ox without looking at it - In the Analects, Wuwei is applied to politics and how human relations are transformed by the power of benevolence and proper conduct, where the junzi ruler does not have to do anything and the state would still be well governed - REMEMBER: Wuwei =/= cessation of all action - Two senses of Wuwei in the Laozi: a) doing, consuming and desiring less; b) doing what we do in a qualitatively different way - Wuwei is the opposite of how we “normally” do things in a world that is consumed by self-interest and desire - Nature has no ulterior motive, no desire or expectations of any returns - Ideally, we “naturally” do not desire to kill sharks for shark fin or to kill elephants for ivory, nor do we “naturally” binge eat or drink - Those that abide by Ziran would be inclined towards simplicity and tranquility —> by doing, consuming and desiring less, the heart and mind will recover calmness and clarity Historical context - Laozi lived during a time of political turomil - seen as a violation of the Ziran - Throughout the Laozi, we find admonitions to those in power to shun aggressive warfare, cruel punishment and heavy taxation Application in human society - Those that embrace Dao may find that their inner virtue is perceived to be “slow” in the eyes of the world - in comparison to those who are always eager to move ahead and gain advantages over others - Most people have more than enough, while I alone have lost out. I have the heart-and-mind of a fool - so vacant and dull! (Laozi 20) - While the world may see strength in being hard, aggressive and unyielding, the Laozi questions this in seeing strength in being soft and yielding - REMEMBER: Acting submissive to gain certain advantages is deception, NOT Wuwei - Wuwei is not about winning or gaining, but a state of mind which values non-contentious ways of acting and being - Wuwei may yield favourable results, but the outcome of Wuwei is not the reason for following it, instead the motivation to follow Wuwei is to be in harmony with nature, not to go against nature - One who possesses virtue in abundance is comparable to a new born baby (Laozi 55) - virtue should be found in innocence and wholesome spontaneity, and NOT in fame and fortune - Constant virtue will be sufficient. And you will return to being the uncarved block (Laozi 28) - emphasise simplicity and integrity of Daoist virtue and those that embody it Quote from the Laozi: Ruling a big country is like cooking a small fish (Laozi 60) - If we keep turning the fish, it would end up overcooked and inedible, but we still need to tend to the fire to be make sure it is being cooked - Metaphor - one should do the minimum required to make things run their course as intended by nature, but however should NOT do completely nothing HOWEVER, Despite all the differences between Confucianism and Daoism, both have shaped Chinese culture and society to this day, and are cherished as complementary and not opposing visions of the highest good Buddhism - Introduced from India around the transition from the Western Han Dynasty to the Eastern Han Dynasty - not indigenous like Confucianism and Daoism - “Buddha” - “Enlightened One” - Through China, Buddhism was introduced to Japan and Korea Buddhist Teachings - Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path Four Noble Truths 1) Suffering (physical and mental) is pervasive and unceasing in mundane human existence - Dukkha 苦 - Life, death and rebirth form an unending cycle which involves suffering - Rebirth (samsara 輪迴) is conditioned by one’s action (karma, 業), which bears on one’s future lives 2) The cause of suffering is caused by self-interested, self-referential and self-serving cravings and desire - Samudaya 集 3) Liberation from suffering is possible by extinguishing cravings and desires - Nirodha 滅 4) The cessation of suffering can be achieved through the EIghtfold Noble Path - Magga 道 Noble Eightfold Path 1) RIght views 2) Right thoughts 3) Right speech 4) Right action 5) Right livelihood 6) Right effort 7) Right mindfulness 8) Right concentration Middle Way 中道 - Steer clear of extreme self-indulgence on one hand and extreme asceticism on the other - Buddha initially followed extreme asceticism, but found it unprodctive in the quest for enlightenment - Enlightenment = nirvana 涅槃, or the extinguishing of cravings or desires, acts as liberation from samsara Three Jewels aka Three Refuges (in that followers take refuge in these things) - The Buddha - The Dharma (teachings) 法 - The Sangha (monastic community) Challenges of Buddhism in China - Language barrier - Lack of concepts such as samsara in traditional Chinese philosophy - Conflict between Buddhist monastic celibacy and leaving behind family with Confucian filial piety Daoist wuwei parallel with concept of nirvana - helped lessen conflict between Buddhism and indigenous Chinese philosophy Three main branches 1) Theravada —> Mainly Indosphere - Spiritual self cultivation - Focus on Individual Practice 2) Mahayana —> Mainly Sinosphere - Widened conception of the Sangha to include the lay Buddhist community - Focus on good deeds, being morally upright, supporting the sangha and helping others 3) Vajrayana —> Tibet, Bhutan, Mongolia - Focus on ritual and meditative practices to achieve enlightenment in a single lifetime Mahayana Teachings - Boddhisatva 菩薩 - someone who has actually attained enlightenment, but delays their entry into nirvana out of compassion to help deliver the faithful from their suffering Two main Chinese Mahayana Traditions 1) Pure Land 淨⼟ Buddhism - Primarily devotional in nature (doctrines, rituals, pantheon of many spiritual beings) - Multiple Buddhas: Buddha Gautama (original one), Buddha Amitabha - Boddhisatvas: Guanyin 2) Chan 禪 Buddhism (also known in English as Zen Buddhism from Japanese) - Focuses on meditation and spiritual self-cultivation (nirvana = realisation of one’s own buddha-nature, possible for everyone to attain Buddhahood) - Meditation aims to expel cravings and desires which cloud one’s mind and defile one’s original nature - Traditional debate on Chan Buddhism - Gradual Enlightenment (repeated effort and years of practice - proposed by Master Shenxiu) VS Sudden Enlightenment (Buddhahood is naturally found within us, we just need to train ourselves to see it all at once - proposed by Master Huineng) - Gradual Enlightment leads to realisation of emptiness (Sunyata 空) through slowly peeling through layers of self, which Sudden Enlightenment may not - Sudden Enlightenment can be achieved by all unlike Gradual Enlightenment which can be exclusive Chan Buddhism - Sense of self is fleeting and impermanent - affected by external conditions such as one’s actions and past karma - clinging onto what is fleeting and impermanent would only cause suffering - Chan Buddhism focuses on seemingly nonsensical questions collectively known as 公案 (eg. What is the sound of one hand clapping) - Smart and rational answer would only cause confusion, intended to have no answer and clear the mind of conscious thought in order to understand emptiness - Oxherd Pictures —> Song Dynasty illustrations which serve as a metaphor for the Buddhist spiritual journey (enlightenment) —> main idea is that the Chan master is no longer of the world even though they remain in the world