Air Quality Report 2008-2015 PDF

1. Air quality 1.1 Sources of air pollution Air pollutants can come from both natural and anthropogenic sources, but anthropogenic air pollutants dominate the atmosphere of areas primarily undergoing industrialization. For management purposes, air pollution sources can be classified as st...

1. Air quality 1.1 Sources of air pollution Air pollutants can come from both natural and anthropogenic sources, but anthropogenic air pollutants dominate the atmosphere of areas primarily undergoing industrialization. For management purposes, air pollution sources can be classified as stationary, mobile or area, as described in RA 8749. 1.1.1 Stationary sources Stationary sources refer to any building or immobile structure, facility or installation which emits or may emit any air pollutant, and may be defined generally as individual points of air emissions (e.g. smokestacks). Under RA 8749, all industries classified as a stationary source should perform their own emissions monitoring and report the results to the DENR. All stationary sources of air emissions must comply with National Emission Standards for Sources Specific Air Pollution (NESSAP) and Ambient Air Quality Standard (AAQS) pertaining to the source. Upon compliance to standards, the DENR issues a Permit to Operate (PTO) to these industries prior to their operation. Based on the grounds stated in Section 12 of DAO 2013-26, a Notice of Violation (NOV) may then be issued to industries with previously issued PTOs. In 2014, the DENR monitored a total of 10,307 firms. During the period 2010 to 2014, the number of firms monitored grew from 6,743 in 2010 to 10,307 in 2014 representing an increase of 53%. The most number of industries monitored are in Regions 3, 4A, 7 and NCR – areas in the country where the level of industrial growth is high. Also notable is the sudden increase in the number of monitored firms in Regions 8 and 12 in 2014. (See Figure 1-1).  1,800 1,600 1,400 1,200 1,000 800 600 400 200 - NCR CAR R1 R2 R3 R4-a R4-b R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 Firms monitored (no.) 2010 601 313 208 454 1,165 805 400 302 508 771 312 142 136 360 90 176 2011 840 343 224 419 1,484 900 344 405 557 910 312 177 155 351 138 182 2012 1,028 343 249 498 1,185 1,112 416 583 654 868 306 192 145 446 130 175 2013 1,035 380 336 498 1,370 1,300 404 624 672 896 277 232 140 495 130 179 2014 1,180 383 436 510 1,209 1,560 502 585 750 957 576 282 202 471 494 210 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Figure 1-1. Number of firms monitored By region, 2012-2014 During the period 2010 to 2014, NOVs issued increased from 293 in 2010 to 930 NOVs in 2014 for an increase of more than 200%. (Figure 1-2) In 2014, the most number of NOVs recorded are in Region IVA (285), NCR (238), Region 10 (104) and Region 4B (100). 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 NCR CAR R1 R2 R3 R4A R4B R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 NOVs issued 2010 123 6 5 2 19 20 73 6 11 4 13 9 2 2011 153 28 8 85 51 54 8 8 2 12 21 3 2012 101 21 2 2 3 100 40 58 20 3 6 42 10 3 2013 114 54 8 6 45 100 41 25 13 3 3 168 10 2 2014 238 22 27 1 9 285 100 40 10 14 3 4 104 11 61 1 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Figure 1-2. Number of NOVs issued, 2010-2014 From 2010 to 2014, the number of PTOs issued was 10,190 in 2010 to 11,129 PTOs in 2014 showing a slight increase of 9 percent. The most number of PTOs was issued in 2013 at 14,728 PTOs. This number abruptly decreased in 2014, exemplified by huge decreases in NCR, 4A and 4B, which explains the low rate of increase in the number of PTOs released during the five-year period. (See Figure 1-3) R13 R12 2014 R11 2013 R10 R9 2012 R8 R7 2011 R6 2010 R5 R4B R4A R3 R2 R1 CAR NCR - 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 Source: EMB Figure 1-3. Number of PTOs issued, 2012-2014 1.1.2 Mobile sources Mobile sources are any vehicle propelled by or through combustion of carbon-based or other fuel, constructed and operated principally for the conveyance of persons or the transportation of property or goods. It has already been reported in the 1996 to 1999 Metro Manila Urban Transportation Integration Study (MMUTIS) that the sources of major atmospheric pollutants such as particulate matter and NOx come mostly from motor vehicle exhaust emissions mainly attributed to jeepneys, buses and taxicabs. However, the total volume of emissions of criteria pollutants attributed from the transport sector disaggregated as to the types of motor vehicles and areas of operation has not yet been fully studied and reported. Figure 1-4 shows the number of total registered motor vehicles (MVs) in the Philippines from 2010 to 2014. The number of registered vehicles has continuously increased in the country, increasing the number of mobile emissions. From 6,634,855 MVs in 2010 to 8,081,224 MVs in 2014 recorded by the LTO, the number of MVs grew by 22 percent during the five-year period. 9,000,000 8,081,224 8,000,000 7,690,038 7,463,393 7,138,942 7,000,000 6,634,855 6,000,000 5,000,000 4,000,000 3,000,000 2,000,000 1,000,000 0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Source: LTO, NSCB Figure 1-4. Total number of registered motor vehicles in the Philippines from 2010-2014 MVs are classified by the LTO for registration into seven groups: cars, utility vehicles (UV), sports utility vehicles (SUV), trucks, buses, motorcycles/tricycles (MC/TC) and trailers. For the period 2008 to 2013, LTO data have shown that all types of vehicles have steadily increased in number as can be seen in Figure 1-5. Prior to 2005, registered UV outnumbered the other types of MV with an average share of 41.8%. From 2005 onwards however, the percentage of motorcycles and tricycles (MC/TC) increased until it overtook the UV share and became the dominant MV in the Philippines.  Others (Diplomatic/ Exempt) Trailers 8,000,000 7,000,000 Cars 6,000,000 5,000,000 Buses 4,000,000 3,000,000 Trucks 2,000,000 1,000,000 UV 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Motorcycles /Tricycles Source: LTO Figure 1-5. Number of registered motor vehicles by MV type, 2008-2013 In general, increase in vehicle registrations is caused by the increase in population especially in urban centers to cater to the transport needs of the people. Although more national roads and bridges are being improved and built through the years, main roads remain heavily congested particularly during rush hours, prolonging vehicle emissions as travel time is increased. The increase in purchase and registration of motorcycles can be attributed to the thought that these MVs are faster, use less space and consume less fuel compared to cars. Those who can afford use cars because the mass transit system of the country is undeveloped, explaining the steady increase in car registrations as well. The solution to heavy traffic is the improvement of the Philippines’ mass transport system as less vehicles will be used, thus reducing mobile emissions. The DOTC has implemented and still continue to promote rationalization projects for public transit, especially for buses and jeepneys which dominate the roads in terms of numbers. On the other hand, the LTFRB LTO inspects motor vehicle emissions as per RA 8749. Compliance to standards is the requirement for new and renewal of registration while penalties are imposed to those who exceed the limit. To reduce vehicular emissions, non-motorized transport (bicycle use) is being promoted as well as the use of ‘cleaner fuels’ such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and compressed natural gas (CNG). In 2012, the transport sector accounted for the 38.72 kTOE (3.4%) of the total 1,146.41 kTOE LPG consumption of the country. Hybrid cars and electricity-powered vehicles are also gaining more support from the government, private and public sector. 1.1.2 Area sources Area source is a source of air emissions that is not confined to a discrete point or points of emissions, examples of which (but not limited to) are construction activities (TSP or PM10), unpaved road ways (TSP or PM10), lagoons (photochemically reactive compounds and/or other emissions), industrial facilities with many small or generalized potential sources such as valves, seals, etc. (photochemically reactive compounds and/or other emissions); and common generally industrial, small, non-regulated point sources (e.g. dry cleaners and gasoline stations) where the point source(s) cannot feasibly or practically be measured. Household cooking, meat curing and waste burning are also among the contributors to area sources. Pursuant to Part VII, Section 13 (d) of the RA 8749 IRR, open burning of materials such as plastic, polyvinyl chloride, paints, ink, wastes containing heavy metals, organic chemicals, petroleum related compound, industrial wastes, ozone depleting substances and other similar toxic and hazardous substances, is prohibited. As specified in Section 24 of RA 8749, there is also a ban on smoking inside a public building or an enclosed public place including public vehicles and other means of transport or in any enclosed area outside of one's private residence, private place of work or any duly designated enclosed smoking area. Implementation of this policy seems lacking as a large part of the 17.3 million Filipino (aged 15 years old and above) smokers can be seen smoking every day in the streets and public vehicles. Alongside the increase in urbanization rates and economic development, the number of construction activities has also increased during the past decade. The total number of new construction projects in 2011 was 112,881 and this increased by 6.75% in 2012 to 121,051 with the most number of constructions occurring in Region 4A at 27,729 projects (22.9%). From 2012, a 10.98% decrease to 107,765 construction projects was recorded in 2013 (Figure 1-6). From 2011 to 2013, the major type of construction was residential, comprising 70 to 75% of all approved construction projects.  Figure 1-6. Number of construction projects in the Philippines, 2011-2013 1.1.4 Emissions inventory The EMB is required under RA 8749 to conduct an inventory of emissions once every three years. Emissions inventory estimates emissions coming from stationary, mobile and area sources. Based on the latest National Emissions Inventory by source conducted in 2015, the majority (65%) of air pollutants came from mobile sources such as cars, motorcycles, trucks and buses. Almost 21 percent were contributed by stationary sources such as power plants and factories. The rest (14%) were from area sources such as construction activities, open burning of solid wastes and kaingin in the uplands. (See Figure 1-7). Area 14% Stationary 21% Mobile 65% Figure 1-7. National Emissions Inventory, by source, 2015 On the other hand, the Emissions Inventory for NCR in the same year revealed that mobile sources contributed an enormous 88 percent to total air pollution in the area compared to 10% from stationary sources and a mere 2% from area sources. (See Figure 1-8).  Area Stationary 2% 10% Mobile 88% Figure 1-8. NCR Emissions Inventory, by source, 2015 1.2 Status of air quality 1.2.1 Air quality monitoring Ambient Air Quality is defined by RA 8749 as the general amount of pollution present in a broad area, and refers to the atmosphere’s average purity as distinguished from discharge measurements taken at the source of pollution. In order to monitor the ambient air quality of the country, EMB regional monitoring stations routinely take measurements of criteria air pollutants. In the existing National Air Quality Monitoring Set-up of the DENR EMB, there are sampling equipment located all over the Philippines classified according to type of monitoring and criteria pollutants monitored. General Ambient and Roadside Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Program General air pollution monitoring stations monitor the ambient air quality of a fixed area. Roadside air quality monitoring stations monitor the ambient air quality near roads with large traffic volumes and assess air pollution caused by motor vehicles. The Quality Assurance/Quality Control of air monitoring network ensures that the ambient air quality monitoring equipment are operated, maintained and calibrated. The manual and real time stations are situated in highly urbanized cities and also rural areas nationwide. These are being managed by focal and alternate focal persons in the regional ofices as mandated through EMB Special Order No. 219 Series of 2015. They are tasked to oversee day to day operation of the stations located in their respective territorial jurisdiction and submit a quarterly report of the stations operation. The AQMS central office manages the central depository system and acts as the overall section in charge of the operation and maintenance of the 93 stations nationwide. (Table 1-1)  Table 1-1. Types of air quality monitoring systems in the Philippines and pollutants monitored, 2015 Type Quantity Manual/Reference Method – PM10 27 Manual/Reference Method - TSP 22 Continuous Monitoring – DOAS (PM10,PM2.5, O3, SO2, NO2,CO 14 & BTX) Continuous Monitoring Van – 1 (Methane, O3, SO2, NO2 & CO) 3 & 2 (PM10) Continuous Monitoring – PMS (PM10 & PM2.5) 27 Total Number of Stations 93 Source: EMB 1.2.2 Criteria pollutants Criteria pollutants are air pollutants for which National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Values have been established. These pollutants and their guideline values are shown in Table 1-2. Table 1-2. National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Values (NAAQGV) from RA 8749 Parameter Averaging Time NAAQGV(µg/NCM) TSP Annual 90 24-hour 230 PM10 Annual 60 24-hour 150 PM2.5 35 (Until 31 Dec, 2015), Annual 25 (By 1 January, 2016) 75 (Until 31 Dec, 2015), 24-hour 50 (By 1 January, 2016) Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Annual 80 24-hour 180 Nitrogen Dioxide Annual - (NO2) 1-hour - 24-hour 150 Ozone (O3) 8-hour 60 1-hour 140 Carbon Monoxide 8-hour 10 (CO) 1-hour 35 Lead (Pb) annual 1 3 months 1.5 Notes: Notes for Table ___ *NCM stands for ‘normal cubic meter’, assuming that the samples were collected under ‘normal’ conditions or at standard temperature and pressure -SO2 and Suspended Particulate matter (TSP and PM) are sampled once every six days when using the manual methods. A minimum of twelve sampling days per quarter or forty-eight sampling days each year is required for these methods. Daily sampling may be done in the future once continuous analyzers are procured and become available. -For short term values, maximum limits represented by ninety-eight percentile (98%) values not to exceed more than once a year. -Annual values of TSP and PM10 are reported as Geometric Mean. *Geometric mean is used because the annual mean pollutant level in a year is dependent of the pollutant level from the previous year. -Evaluation of the guideline for Lead is carried out for 24-hour averaging time and averaged over three moving calendar months. The monitored average value for any three months shall not exceed the guideline value. Particulates or tiny particles of solid material or liquid aerosols can be present in the atmosphere and can be of pollution concern. Particle pollutants in the air can come from both natural and man-made sources such as smoke from forest fires and recreational sources, volcanic eruptions, vehicle exhaust emissions, industrial emissions, soil and road dust. Depending on the specific size, properties and environmental conditions, it may remain suspended in the air for a few seconds or indefinitely and travel from hundreds to thousands of kilometers. Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) refer to all atmospheric particles in the atmosphere with diameters equal to or less than 100 micrometers. These relatively ‘coarse’ particles are mainly related to soiling and dust nuisance. On the other hand, particulates with diameters less than 10 micrometers are called Particulate Matter (PM) and are of greater health concern as they can penetrate deep into the lungs. PM with diameters less than 10 micrometers are specifically called PM10 while PM with diameters less than 2.5 micrometers are called PM2.5. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a colorless gas with a pungent smell at low concentrations. Fossil fuel combustion, power plants and other industrial facilities are the main sources of SO2 in the atmosphere. In urban centers with high traffic volume, high SO2 levels can be observed due to vehicular combustion of fuel with high-sulfur content. In the atmosphere, it can undergo chemical reactions (oxidation) creating sulfur trioxide, particulate sulfates and sulfuric acid which can lead to acid rain. Exposure to SO2 can have adverse respiratory effects and heart diseases. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a reddish-brown gas with an odorless, pungent smell. The main sources of NO2 are vehicular emissions, power plants and off-road equipment. Like SO2, it undergoes chemical reactions in the atmosphere, forming other toxic NOx compounds and nitrate particulates that pose respiratory health risks. If present in the atmosphere in high concentrations, it can react with sunlight in a process called photolysis which leads to ozone formation. Ozone (O3) is a colorless, odorless gas that can be found at the upper layers of the atmosphere and serves as our protection from the sun’s harmful rays. However, O3 can also be formed at ground level through chemical reactions of NOx and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) especially during hot days. The main sources of NOx and VOCs include industrial and electric facility emissions, vehicular exhausts, gasoline vapors and chemical solvents. O3 can pose detrimental health risks, if inhaled, and can also affect sensitive vegetation and ecosystems since it is also classified as a greenhouse gas. Carbon monoxide (CO), is a colorless, odorless gas that is very toxic when inhaled as it reduces oxygen transport in the body. At very high concentrations, CO can even cause death. The main source of this pollutant is vehicular emissions especially in urban centers. Heavy metals, primarily Lead (Pb) are measured in the atmosphere because of lead emissions from industrial sources and vehicular combustion of fuel. Pb used to be the main anti-knock component of gasoline but regulatory efforts have already prohibited the use of such fuel, reducing lead combustions. But like other heavy metals such as Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Mercury (Hg), Chromium (Cr) and Nickel (Ni), Pb is persistent in the environment and poses serious health risks. 1.2.3 Air quality index A complex relationship between air pollution levels and exposure exists. However, the public needs to be well informed of their ill health effects in a manner that is both simple and accurate. To protect public health, safety and general welfare, a set of pollution standard index of air quality, called the Air Quality Index (AQI) was formulated in line with Part II, Rule VII, Section 4 of RA 8749 IRR. For the six criteria pollutants, the air quality can be described in terms of six levels depending on pollutant concentration: Good, Fair, Unhealthy for sensitive groups, Very unhealthy, Acutely unhealthy and Emergency. Table 1-3 summarizes the AQI applied in the Philippines. In order for the public to better understand the AQI and its implication to human health, cautionary statements can be issued depending on the specific pollutant and its concentration level. The cautionary statements are issued depending on the prescribed averaging time in Table 1-3, detailed in Table 1-4. Daily reports of the AQI based on PM10 have been made available starting in 2014 at the four continuous monitoring stations in NCR (DLSU-Taft, DPWH-Timog Q.C., PLV-Valenzuela and Commonwealth Ave, Q.C.), through the website http://www.emb.gov.ph.  Table 1-3. Air Quality Index breakpoints, Annex of RA 8749-IRR Unit, Unhealthy Very Acutely Pollutant Averaging Good Fair for sensitive Emergency unhealthy unhealthy Time groups μg/Nm3, 900 and TSP 0 – 80 81 – 230 231 – 349 350 – 599 600 – 899 24-hr greater μg/Nm3, PM10 0 – 54 55 – 154 155 – 254 255 – 354 355 – 424 425 – 504 24-hr ppm, 0.000 – 0.035 – 0.225 – 0.305 – 0.605 – SO2 0.145 – 0.224 24-hr 0.034 0.144 0.304 0.604 0.804 ppm, 0.000 – 0.065 – 0.105 – 0.125 – 0.085 – 0.104 a 8-hr 0.064 0.084 0.124 0.374 O3 ppm, 0.165 – 0.205 – 0.405 – - - 0.125 – 0.164 1-hr 0.204 0.404 0.504 ppm, CO 0.0 – 4.4 4.5 – 9.4 9.5 – 12.4 12.5 – 15.4 15.5 – 30.4 30.5 – 40.4 8-hr ppm, NO2 b b b b 0.65 – 1.24 1.25 – 1.64 1-hr aWhen 8-hour O3 concentrations exceed 0.374 ppm, AQI values of 301 or higher must be calculated with 1-hour O3 concentrations. bNO has no 1-hour term NAAQG 2 Table 1-4. Summary matrix of pollutant-specific cautionary statements for the general public. Caution TSP, PM10, SO2, Ozone and NO2 CO None GOOD FAIR GOOD FAIR People with respiratory disease, such as Unhealthy for sensitive groups asthma, should limit outdoor exertion. Pedestrians should avoid heavy traffic Very unhealthy areas. People with heart or respiratory disease, Very unhealthy such as asthma, should stay indoors and rest as much as possible. Acutely Unnecessary trips should be postponed. unhealthy Acutely Very unhealthy People should voluntarily restrict the use of Very unhealthy vehicles. unhealthy People should limit outdoor exertion. People with heart or respiratory disease, such as asthma, should stay indoors and rest as much as possible. Motor vehicle use may be restricted Acutely unhealthy Acutely unhealthy Industrial activities may be curtailed. Everyone should remain indoors, (keeping windows and doors closed unless heat stress is possible). Motor vehicle use should be prohibited Emergency except for emergency situations. Industrial activities, except that which is vital for public safety and health, should be curtailed. People with cardiovascular disease, such Unhealthy for Acutely as angina, should limit heavy exertion and sensitive groups unhealthy avoid sources of CO, such as heavy traffic. Smokers should refrain from smoking. Very unhealthy Everyone should avoid exertion and sources of CO, such as heavy traffic; and Emergency should stay indoors and rest as much as possible. Source: EMB 1.2.4 Air quality trends Ambient air quality trends nationwide and in selected regions are presented for criteria pollutants that have been monitored in air quality monitoring stations in most regions of the country. Average values were calculated for Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) and PM10 to provide trends for most regions during the period 2008-2015. Average values and trends for other pollutants were also presented for the National Capital Region (NCR) and other regions. Data were subjected to quality assurance and quality control by EMB Central Office. Total Suspended Particulates (TSP): annual trends Among criteria pollutants, Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) have been the subject of monitoring for the longest period of time. TSP monitoring, which uses the manual/reference method, goes as far back as more than a decade ago. The geometric mean of TSP readings in each monitoring site in the regions is presented as the yearly average for that site. Table 1-5 presents the annual TSP trends for the period 2008-2015 at specific sites in most regions of the country. It must also be noted that a number of sites in some regions did not have data or had incomplete data during certain years. (There are no data from monitoring stations that are undergoing repair and those that did not meet the 75% percent minimum data capture requirement). Table 1-5. Total Suspended Particulates annual mean values (2008 – 2015). Total Suspended Particulates Annual Values (μg/Ncm) Region Station 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Makati Bureau of Fire Cmpd., Ayala Avenue 134 145 160 128 135 130* 111 cor., Buendia St., Belair, Makati City Valenzuela Municipal Hall, Pamantasan ng 156 164 162 121 123 143 122 86 Lungsod ng Valenzuela, Valenzuela City EDSA East Avenue BFD Cmpd. East Avenue Q. 107 90 105 74 72 92 96 97 NATIONAL C. CAPITAL REGION NCR-EDSA National 144 89 152 103 96 112 97* (NCR) Printing Ofc. Q.C Ateneo de Manila Observatory, Ateneo 74 62 79 58 62 70 50 48 University Mandaluyong City Hall, Maycilo Circle, Plainview, 125 104 138 136 148 143 158 Mandaluyong City Dept. of Health , San 103 103 132 101 114 115 105* 109 Lazaro St., Rizal Avenue  Total Suspended Particulates Annual Values (μg/Ncm) Region Station 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 LLDA Compound Pasig, 85 126 City Hall Marikina Sports Complex, Sumulong Highway, Sto. 125 125 108 97 81 104 Niño, Marikina City MRT-Taft Avenue Station EDSA Cor. Taft Avenue, 282 283 294 219 213 197 216 Malibay, Pasay City Vigan City, Ilocos Sur 127 145 Pagudpud, Ilocos Norte In front of Nepo Mart, REGION 1 Alaminos City, 133 132 125 Pangasinan San Fernando City, Beside Francisco Ortega 130 117 Monument, Province of La Union Tuguegarao Stn. Brgy. REGION 2 77 94 108 87 10, Tuguegarao City San Fernando City, 128 243 202* 180 Pampanga REGION 3 Saluysoy Stn., Bulacan 106 124 61 21 14 6 41* Intercity Stn., Bulacan 344 277 482* 244 Cavite REGION Batangas 50 19 22 4A Quezon Capitol Site, PGENRO, REGION 4B Capitol Site, Calapan 159 City, Oriental Mindoro Barriada, Legaspi City 46 80 48 34 40 35 40 37 REGION 5 San Nicolas, Iriga City 72 164 57 52 108 78 55 50 Panganiban Drive, Diversion Road, Naga 84 157 102 69 101 96 72 72 City Jaro Police Station 80 78 51 Cmpd., Iloilo REGION 6 Lapaz Plaza, Iloilo 135 66 50 88 56 40 232 Otan, Iloilo City 65 54 213 100 DENR-7, Greenplains REGION 7 Subd., Banilad, Mandaue 69 75 71 78 94 City  Total Suspended Particulates Annual Values (μg/Ncm) Region Station 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Cornilla Lao Residence Boundary of Barangays 110 124 121 106 94 Inuburan & Langtad, City of Naga Cebu Business Park, 32 Cebu City Zamboanga City Medical Center, Dr. Evangelista 135 165 141 137 St.,Zamboanga City Barangay Sto. Nino, San REGION 9 Jose Road, Z.amboanga 119 135 113 124 City PHIDCO, Baliwasan Seaside, Zamboanga 140 181 174 139 City Davao Memorial Park, Phase 2, McArthur 81 99 44 41 40 Highway, Davao City. Las Palmeras Apartelle Open Compound, 56 60 83 61 Quimpo Blvd., Davao City REGION 11 Dacoville Subdivision, Phase 2, McArthur 31 58 65 44 35 Highway, Dumoy, Toril, Davao City Toril Open Park Area, Agton st., Toril Poblacion, 34 58 150 92 Davao City Station 1 in front of Mun. Hall Polomolok, South 86 75 73 58 ** Cotabato Station 2 in front of Mun. REGION 12 Hall, Surallah, Cotabato 83 75 73 55 ** City Station 3 in front of Mun. Hall, Isulan, Sultan 83 75 73 53 ** Kudarat New Asia, Butuan city 63 63 49 55 54 Station Petron Nasipit REGION Depot, Nasipit Agusan 68 68 93 13 Del Norte, Butuan City Central Butuan, District 1 50 43 61 71 94 Ground, Butuan City Source: EMB Note: * Did not meet required capture rate ** Shifted to PM10 Monitoring TSP National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Value (NAAQGV): Annual – 90 μg/Ncm Annual TSP trends in the NCR and other regions Based on the above table, Figure 1-9 shows the annual TSP trends in NCR from 2008 to 2015. Except for the Ateneo station which is a general ambient station, all NCR monitoring stations recorded average annual TSP values that exceeded the National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Value (NAAQGV) of 90 ug/ncm. 350 300 NAAQGV Annual: 90µg/Ncm 250 µg/Ncm 200 2008 150 2009 100 2010 50 2011 2012 0 2013 2014 2015 Figure 1-9. TSP annual mean values in NCR, 2008-2015. The location of the monitoring station also plays a big role in the readings obtained, as in the case of the Pasay Rotunda station which registered the highest TSP levels in 2008-2014 way above twice the guideline value. It is located near the intersection of two main roads that experiences very heavy traffic volume especially during rush hours. Massive LRT structures over the equipment in the station also hinder air dispersion, trapping high amounts of particulate matter from vehicular emissions. The only TSP measurements in 2008-2015 that are consistently below the NAAQGV were taken at the station located inside Ateneo de Manila University. Its present location is surrounded by plants and trees that serve as air buffer, explaining the low TSP measurements. Annual average TSP values in other regions also show varying trends. Figure 1-10 shows TSP levels in Region 3 that are monitored in 3 stations: San Fernando in Pampanga, Saluysoy in Bulacan and Intercity in Bulacan. In San Fernando and Intercity, TSP levels since 2011 to 2015 were way above the long-term NAAQGV while lower values were observed in Saluysoy for the same period. In San Fernando, the high TSP levels can be attributed to road dust and motor vehicle emissions alongside the growing development of the area. 600 500 NAAQGV Annual: 90µg/Ncm 400 µg/Ncm 300 200 100 0 San Fernando - Pampanga Saluysoy Station - Bulacan Intercity Station - Bulacan 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Figure 1-10. TSP annual mean values in Region 3, 2008-2015. Although the Saluysoy station is exposed to open burning of solid waste, vehicular emissions and surrounded by several legal and illegal smelting plants, TSP levels were lower due to the close coordination of the LGU and EMB regional office to monitor all existing gold smelting plants in the area. As for Intercity, it is located in an industrial area composed of around 90 units/sets of multi-pass rice milling machines owned by about 60 operators. This explains why TSP levels were alarmingly high from 2011 to 2015. More stringent monitoring and implementation of the penalty system should be done by the local government to improve the air quality in the area. Figure 1-11 shows average TSP levels in Region 5 during the period 2008- 2015 in the cities of Naga, Legaspi and Iriga. TSP levels in the Legaspi City monitoring site were consistently below the guideline value. TSP levels also complied with the guideline value in the majority of monitoring stations in the cities of Naga and Iriga.  180 NAAQGV Annual: 90 µg/Ncm 160 140 120 µg/Ncm 100 80 60 40 20 0 Barriada - Legaspi City San Nicolas - Iriga City Panganiban Drive, Diversion road - Naga City 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Figure 1-11. TSP annual mean values in Region 5, 2008-2015. In Region 7, TSP levels were monitored in the cities of Mandaue and Naga from 2011 to 2015. (See Figure 1-12). TSP monitoring was discontinued in Cebu City in 2012. During the 4-year period, TSP monitoring showed contrasting results: the TSP levels in Mandaue City stayed below the guideline value while those in the City of Naga exceeded the guideline value. 140 NAAQGV Annual: 90 µg/Ncm 120 100 µg/Ncm 80 60 40 20 0 DENR-7, Greenplains Subd., Banilad - Cornilla Lao Residence Boundary of Mandaue City Barangays Inuburan & Langta - City of Naga 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Figure 1-12. TSP annual mean values in Region 7, 2011-2015. In Region 11, TSP levels were monitored in 4 monitoring stations in Davao City from 2008 to 2012. (See Figure 1-13). Except for a couple of monitoring results in 2 stations, TSP levels in Davao City monitoring sites had been in compliance with the guideline value of 90 ug/ncm. Since 2013, TSP monitoring had been discontinued and replaced with PM10 monitoring in the Davao area.  Chart Title 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Davao Memorial Las Palmeras Dacoville Subdivision, Toril Open Park Area, Park, Phase 2, Apartelle Open phase 2, McArthur Agton St, Toril McArthur Highway - Compound, Quimpo Highway, Dumoy, Poblacion - Davao Davao City. Blvd.- Davao City Toril - Davao city City 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Figure 1-13. TSP annual mean values in Region 11, 2008-2012. Particulate Matter 10 (PM10): annual trends PM10 levels are monitored in air quality monitoring stations in different regions of the country mostly using manual/reference method. In the NCR, seven (7) continuous ambient air quality monitoring stations were set up in 2014 to augment the manual monitoring stations and provide 24-hour real time data. Table 1-6 shows annual PM10 levels from 2012 to 2014. Table 1-6. PM10 annual mean in regional monitoring stations, 2012-2014. PM10 Annual Mean Values REGION STATION (μg/Ncm) 2012 2013 2014 National Printing Office Cmpd. 61 73 89 EDSA Diliman, Quezon City Marikina Sports Complex 67 62 47 Cmpd.Sumulong Highway Brgy. Sto Nino, Marikina City DOH Cmpd. Rizal Avenue Sta 51 69 Cruz, Manila MMDA Building Cmpd. Orense St. 54 67 52 cor. EDSA Guadalupe, Makati City NCR Pasay Rotonda Station EDSA cor. 110 105 Taft Avenue Malibay, Pasay City National Bilibid Prison, Muntinlupa 25 36 Monumento, Caloocan City 151 150 Commonwealth Ave., Q.C. 57 DLSU, Taft, Manila (RT) 29 27 DPWH, Timog EDSA, Q.C (RT) 44* 66 Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng 33 Valenzuela, Valenzuela City Ateneo de Manila Univ.,Q.C. (RT) 38 50 *  PM10 Annual Mean Values REGION STATION (μg/Ncm) 2012 2013 2014 Valenzuela City - Radio ng Bayan 58 74 53 (RT) NAMRIA, Taguig City (RT) 43 54 Plaza Garden Park, Central CAR Business District, Lower Session 72 Road, Baguio City (RT) City Hall Compound Urdaneta City, 40 Pangasinan West Central Elementary School, 46 47 59 Dagupan City, Pangasinan R1 City Plaza San Fernando City, La 81 Union City Plaza San Carlos City, 83 Pangasinan Tuguegarao City Monitoring, St. R2 Paul University Philippines, Mabini 29 Street, Tuguegarao City Cavite State University, Indang, 32 R4A Cavite (RT) Brgy. Bolbok, Batangas City (RT) 29 Municipal Hall, Municipality of Baco, 41 R4B Oriental Mindoro Naujan, Oreintal Mindoro R5 Barraida, Legaspi City 32 39 Central Philippine University R6 21 19 campus, Jaro, iloilo city Mabolo, Cebu City 77 73 58 R7 Cebu Business Park, Cebu city 36 33 20 R8 Tacloban City 74* Zamboanga City Medical Center. Compound, Dr. Evangelista Street 52 52 Corners Veterans Ave., & Gov. Lim Ave., Zamboanga City EMB - 9 Compound, Lantawan, R9 Pasonanca, Zamboanga City 34 41 (Started 2013) Philippine International Development Incorporated (PHIDCO), Baliwasan Seaside 44 52 Zamboanga City Zamboanga del Sur Approx. 70m from Amparo St. And 300m from Davao-Agusan National 19 16* Highway R11 Brgy. 12-B, Mapa St. Corner J.P Laurel Ave., Davao City (Fronting 21 21* Brgy. Hall)  PM10 Annual Mean Values REGION STATION (μg/Ncm) 2012 2013 2014 Approx. 800m DMPI main gate, Davao Memorial Park Phase2, 14 15* McArthur Highway, Matina, Davao City Approximately 50m from Agton St. Open Park infront of Toril District 27 30* Hall, Agton St., Davao City Municipal Hall -Tupi, South 54 50 56 Cotabato R12 City Hall of Koronadal City 57 51 64 Municipal Hall - Midsayap, North 51 63 75 Cotabato Note: *< 75% required data capture rate PM10 National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Value (NAAQGV) – 60 μg/Ncm In 2015, a sizable number of additional PM10 monitoring stations were installed nationwide bringing the total to 56 stations. These facilities consist of 23 manual and 33 continuous monitoring stations including 17 continuous monitoring stations in the NCR. Table ___ shows station locations and the PM10 annual mean per station in 2015. Of considerable concern also are about 17 reported equipment breakdown in stations that are mostly located outside the NCR, which were responsible for failing to meet the required data capture rate. Table ____. PM10 annual mean values in regional monitoring stations, 2015. PM10 Annual Monitoring Mean Region Station Method Values (µg/Ncm), 2015 Manual National Printing Office Cmpd. EDSA Diliman, Quezon City 67 Marikina Sports Complex Cmpd.Sumulong Highway Brgy. Sto Nino, 61 Manual Marikina City Manual DOH Cmpd. Rizal Avenue Sta Cruz, Manila 60 Manual MMDA Building Cmpd. Orense St. cor. EDSA Guadalupe, Makati City 42 Manual National Bilibid Prison, Muntinlupa 25 Continuous De La Salle University, Taft, Manila 31 Continuous DPWH, Timog EDSA, Quezon City 46 NCR Continuous Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Valenzuela, Valenzuela City 58* Continuous Andrews Avenue, Pasay City 78* Continuous Navotas City Hall, M. Naval St. Navotas City 72 Continuous Rohm and Hass Property, Las Piñas City 35 Continuous Polytechnic Institute, City of Malabon 45 North Caloocan City Hall – Zapote Street, Barangay 177, Caloocan 54 Continuous City Continuous Don Bosco Barangay Hall, Better Living Subdivision, Paranaque City 52  PM10 Annual Monitoring Mean Region Station Method Values (µg/Ncm), 2015 Continuous Makati Park, Dr. Jose P. Rizal Extension, East Rembo, Makati City 44* Continuous Pateros Elementary School, Pateros City 52 Continuous Pinaglabanan Shrine, San Juan City 18* Bureau of Corrections, New Bilibid Prison Reservation, Muntinlupa 31 Continuous City Technological University of the Philippines-Taguig Campus, Taguig 66 Continuous City Hardin ng Pagasa, Mandaluyong City Hall, Plainview, Mandaluyong 63* Continuous City Continuous Brgy. Oranbo, Pasig 69* Continuous Parking Area of Marikina Justice Hall, Marikina City 56 CAR Continuous Burnham park, Baguio City 35* Manual City Plaza San fernando City, La Union 73* Manual City Plaza San Carlos City, Pangasinan 75* REGION Dagupan City, Province of Pangasinan, western Central Elementary 68 Manual 1 School Continuous Urdaneta, Pangasinan 47+ Continuous Mariano Marcos State University, Batac, Ilocos Norte 24+ REGION Manual St. Paul University Philippines, Mabini Street, Tuguegarao City ND 2 Manual Meycauayan City Hall, Meycauayan, Bulacan 45 REGION 3 Manual Heroes hall, San Fernando, City of San Fernando, Pampanga 29 REGION City of Biñan, San Pablo St., Biñan City, Laguna 22* Continuous 4A Manual Municipal Hall, Municipality of Baco, Oriental Mindoro 60* REGION 4B Palawan State University, Tiniguiban Heights, Puerto Princesa, 26 Continuous Palawan REGION Manual Barraida, Legaspi City 38 5 Continuous Naga City PENRO, Naga City 29 Manual University of San Augustin Campus, Iloilo City 43* REGION Manual Leganes Municipal Grounds, Poblacion, leganes, Iloilo City 51 6 City Hall of Bacolod, New Government Center, Bacolod City 28 Continuous Manual Mabolo, Cebu City 52 REGION Cebu Business Park, Cebu city 34 7 Manual REGION Manual Robinsons Place, Tacloban 64+ 8 Zamboanga City Medical Center. Compound, Dr. Evangelista Street 32 Manual Corners Veterans Ave., & Gov. Lim Ave., Zamboanga City Manual EMB-9 Compound, Lantawan, Pasonanca, Zamboanga City 45 REGION Philippine International Development Incorporated (PHIDCO), 60 9 Manual Baliwasan Seaside Zamboanga City Zamboanga del Sur Continuous Western Mindanao State University, Normal Road, Zamboanga City 11* Ateneo De Zamboanga University, La Purisima Street, Zamboanga 20 Continuous City  PM10 Annual Monitoring Mean Region Station Method Values (µg/Ncm), 2015 REGION Continuous Iligan Medical Center College, Palao, Iligan City 49 10 Approx. 70m from Amparo St. And 300m from Davao-Agusan 35* Manual National Highway Brgy. 12-B, Mapa St. Corner J.P Laurel Ave., Davao City (Fronting 45* Manual Brgy. Hall) Approx. 800m DMPI main gate, Davao Memorial Park Phase2, 34 REGION Manual McArthur Highway, Matina, Davao City 11 Approximately 50m from Agton St. Open Park infront of Toril District 57 Manual Hall, Agton St., Davao City Continuous Calinan National High School, Quirino Avenue, Davao City 36 Continuous Davao International Airport, Catitipan, Buhangin District, Davao City 73+ Continuous City of Koronadal, General Santos Drive, Koronadal City 49 REGION 12 Pedro Acharon Sports Complex, Brgy. Calumpang, General Santos 35 Continuous City Manual Central Butuan, District 1 Ground, Butuan City 58 Manual Petron Nasipit Depot, Nasipit Agusan Del Norte, Butuan City 55 REGION 13 Continuous Caraga State University, Ampayon, Butuan City 37* Butuan City Local Government Unit (Compound of City Environment 35 Continuous Office) Source: EMB *< 75% required data capture rate, equipment breakdown or under maintenance. + Arithmetic mean ND – No data National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Value (NAAQGV): Annual – 60 μg/Ncm Figure 1-14 shows PM10 levels in the NCR during the period 2012-2015. It is notable that there were fewer stations that registered measurements exceeding the guideline value of 60 μg/Ncm in 2012 and 2014. The majority of stations, however, had measurements that exceeded the guideline value in 2013. The NPO Compound in EDSA, Q.C. continuously registered high PM10 levels during the 4-year period, all of which failed to meet the guideline value. Exceedingly high values were recorded in two stations in 2012-2013, namely, Pasay Rotonda EDSA corner Taft Avenue in Pasay and Monumento, Caloocan City station. In 2015, only 2 out of 8 stations had PM10 levels that exceeded the guideline value (NPO in Q.C. and Marikina Sports Complex in Marikina). No data were recorded in 4 stations (Pasay, Caloocan, Ateneo and Taguig) from 2014 to 2015 due to equipment breakdown or maintenance problems.  NAAQGV Annual: 60 µg/Ncm 160 140 120 100 µg/Ncm 80 60 40 20 0 2012 2013 2014 2015 Figure 1-14. PM10 annual levels in the National Capital Region 2012-2015. In Region 7 (Metro Cebu), PM10 monitoring stations recorded constantly low levels during the period 2012 – 2015. (See Figure 1-15). In the Mabolo, Cebu City station, PM10 dropped to 58 and 52 μg/Ncm in 2014 and 2015 from previous 2-year levels that exceeded the guideline value. The other station (Cebu Business Park) continuously registered low PM10 levels during the 4-year period.  90 NAAQGV Annual: 60 µg/Ncm 80 70 µg/Ncm 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Mabolo, Cebu City Cebu Business Park, Cebu city 2012 2013 2014 2015 Figure 1-15. PM10 annual levels in Region 7 (Metro Cebu), 2012-2015. PM2.5 levels in NCR: 2014 In the National Capital Region, PM2.5 annual levels in 2014 are shown in Table 1-7. Both Quezon City monitoring stations recorded levels exceeding the guideline value of 35 µg/Ncm. Table 1-7. PM2.5 annual levels in NCR monitoring stations, 2012-2014. Stations 2013 2014 Commonwealth 50 Ave. QC DLSU Taft, 21 19 Manila DPWH, Timog 36 43 EDSA, QC PLV, 29 29 Valenzuela City Source: EMB NAAQGV: Annual – 35 µg/Ncm Monitoring of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone in NCR:2014 Table 1-8 shows average values for S02, N02 and 03 in NCR for the year 2014. Boxplots are also shown for these trace gases in subsequent figures. Data were inadequate for 2015 due to failure to meet required data capture rate, equipment breakdown or maintenance problems.  Table 1-8. Average statistics for S02, N02 and 03 in NCR, 2014. Station SO2 24-Hour Common DPWH, PLV, Average Statistics DLSU Taft, wealth Ave. Timog Valenzuela Manila QC EDSA, QC City Min 3 4 5 3 25 Percentile 13 9 19 52 Annual Ave 27 12 27 86 75 Percentile 38 16 32 93 Max 143 35 73 268 NO2 24-Hour Average Statistics Min 33 10 46 10 25 Percentile 56 37 79 24 Annual Ave 128 49 106 63 75 Percentile 214 60 130 142 Max 436 94 195 185 Ozone 8-Hour Average Statistics Min 1 6 29 25 Percentile 27 20 50 Annual Ave 52 40 98 75 Percentile 68 51 116 Max 225 148 282 Source: EMB Sulfur dioxide (SO2) monitoring in NCR for year 2014 A box plot of the 24-hour average SO2 monitoring data in the NCR for the year 2014 is shown in Figure 1-16. Annual 24-hour average values in all 4 stations were way below the 24-hour NAAQGV of 180 μg/m3. The stations also recorded maximum 24-hour concentrations that complied with the guideline value with the exception of the PLV, Valenzuela station which registered a maximum 24-hour concentration of 268 μg/m3. Figure 1-17 also shows 1-year average SO2 levels in the NCR wherein only one station (PLV, Valenzuela) recorded annual average SO2 that exceeded the guideline value of 80 μg/m3.  24-Hours National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Value 280 260 Max 24-hour average 240 24-hour annual average 220 Concentration (μg/m3) 200 Min 24-hour average 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Commonwealth Ave, Q.C DLSU, Taft, Manila DPWH, Timog EDSA, Q.C* PLV, Valenzuela City Source: EMB Figure 1-16. Box plot of 24-hour average SO2 levels in the NCR in 2014. Annual average SO2 levels 1-Year National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Value 90 80 70 Concentration (μg/m3) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Commonwealth Ave DLSU,Taft, Manila DPWH,Timog EDSA,QC PLV,Valenzuela City Source: EMB Figure 1-17. Annual average SO2 levels in the NCR in 2014. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) monitoring in NCR for year 2014 Figure 1-18 shows a boxplot of 24-hour average NO2 levels in the NCR in 2014 wherein the 24-hour annual average levels in all stations were compliant with the guideline value of 150. However, maximum 24-hour concentrations recorded in 3 stations (Commonwealth Ave. and DPWH Timog EDSA in Quezon City and PLV in Valenzuela City) exceeded the guideline value.  24-hour National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Value 500 Max 24-Hour Average 450 24-hour annual average 400 Concentration (μg/m3) 350 Min 24-hour average 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Commonwealth Ave, Q.C* DLSU, Taft, Manila DPWH, Timog EDSA, Q.C PLV, Valenzuela City Source: EMB Figure 1-18. Box plot of 24-hour average NO2 levels in the NCR in 2014. Ozone (O3) monitoring in NCR for year 2014 A boxplot of 8-hour average ozone levels in the NCR in 2014 shows that 2 out of 3 stations (DLSU Taft, Manila and DPWH Timog EDSA, Q.C.) recorded 8-hour annual average values that were within the guideline value of 60 μg/m3. The PLV Valenzuela station registered average and maximum levels exceeding the guideline value. (See Figure 1-19) 8-Hour National Ambient Air Quality Guideline Value 300 Max 8-hour average 280 260 8-hour annual average 240 Concentration (μg/m3) 220 Min 8-hour average 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 DLSU, Taft, Manila DPWH, Timog EDSA, Q.C PLV, Valenzuela City Source: EMB Figure 1-19. Box plot of 8-hour average Ozone levels in the NCR in 2014. 1.3 Impacts of air pollution Air quality is the overall description of air pollution levels in a defined area that may affect the environment and public health. Over the years, increasing levels of air pollutants from natural and human-related (anthropogenic) sources lead to poor air quality. According to the US EPA, an average adult inhales around 11,000 liters of air per day, while children breathe greater volumes of air, hence greater amounts of air pollutants which can lead to respiratory problems. In 2009, World Bank has estimated that annually, more than 1 million people get sick and 15,000 die prematurely due to outdoor air pollution (OAP) in the Philippines. The annual cost of disease due to OAP is estimated to be around Php 0.9 billion while the annual income loss from mortality is more than Php 5.0 billion. Thus, essentially, the cost of pollution is Php 5.9 billion annually. In other parts of the world, air pollution has also been linked to changes in climate through different mechanisms such as shifting of monsoons and accelerated melting of polar ice caps. Aside from these, several international studies including the Philippines have also proven major agricultural productivity losses, posing a threat to food security. Air quality is therefore of great national concern as it can affect the country’s ecological balance and the health of every individual. 1.3.1 Impacts on health The main reason in abating air pollution is the detrimental effects it poses on human health. As breathing clean air is a basic necessity for human well- being, elevated levels of pollutants in the atmosphere is one of the most significant global health concerns. The WHO reported in 2005 that urban indoor and outdoor air pollution causes more than 2 million premature deaths worldwide, primarily affecting populations of developing countries. In 2013, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the WHO has also classified outdoor air pollution as the leading environmental cause of cancer deaths. Health effects of air pollution range from acute symptoms such as coughing and respiratory infections, to development of chronic diseases and even mortality. However, numerous studies have proven that severity of effects depends on the specific pollutant and actual exposure severity. Error! Reference source not found.1-9 shows the effects of air pollution attributable to short and long term effects while Error! Reference source not found.1-10 describes the health implications of exposure to criteria air pollutants. In urban areas where there are higher concentrations of people and air pollutants, poorer air quality would mean posing more detrimental health risks for its residents. Most exposed would be transport workers such as traffic enforcers, drivers and daily commuters.  Table 1-9. Health effects attributable to short-term and long-term exposure to air pollution. Short-term Exposure Long-term Exposure  Mortality due to cardiovascular and respiratory disease  Daily mortality  Chronic respiratory disease incidence  Respiratory and cardiovascular and prevalence (asthma, COPD, hospital admissions chronic pathological changes)  Respiratory and cardiovascular  Chronic changes in physiological emergency department visits functions  Respiratory and cardiovascular  Lung cancer primary care visits  Chronic cardiovascular disease  Use of respiratory and  Intrauterine growth restriction (low cardiovascular medications birth weight at term, intrauterine  Days of restricted activity growth retardation, small for  Work absenteeism gestational age)  School absenteeism  Acute symptoms (wheezing, coughing, phlegm production, respiratory infections)  Physiological changes (e.g. lung function) Source: WHO, 2006 Table 1-10. Health effects of criteria air pollutants. Pollutant Health Effect Particulate Matter Poses the biggest threat to human health as PM2.5 can penetrate (PM) deep into the lungs Difficulty in breathing Lung tissue damage Aggravate existing cardiovascular diseases and lung problems Cancer-causing High vulnerability for elderly and children Nitrogen Dioxide Lung-irritant (NO2) Lower resistance to respiratory diseases such as influenza Impairment of child lung development Increase chances of children developing asthma Structural changes in the lungs High vulnerability for elderly and children people already suffering from asthma Sulfur Dioxide Difficulty in breathing (SO2) Affect lung functions Eye irritation Aggravate existing respiratory problems People sensitive to SO2 may develop symptoms such as wheezing, shortness of breath and coughing High vulnerability for asthmatics and individuals with cardiovascular disease or chronic lung disease, children and elderly Ozone (O3) Difficulty in breathing Trigger asthma Coughing and chest pains  Pollutant Health Effect Irritation of throat and eyes Lower resistance to respiratory diseases Inflammation and malfunction of the lungs High vulnerability for people already suffering from respiratory problems, such as asthma Carbon Monoxide Reduces oxygen tranport to body cells and tissues (Has 300 times greater affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen) Impairment of visual perception, manual dexterity, learning ability and performance of complex tasks High vulnerability for people with heart problems (angina or peripheral vascular disease), anemia and for smokers Source: DOH, 2010 Also playing an important role are environmental factors and the susceptibility of the exposed individual which is based on age, health status, diet, lifestyle and genetics. Children are at higher risks since they breathe in higher volumes of air compared to adults. Those with pre-existing cardiac or respiratory diseases are also more likely to experience more intense effects. Pregnant women, old and immune-compromised people are also at higher risks. World Bank reported that in 2001, the health costs of PM10 exposure in Metro Manila, Baguio City, Cebu City and Davao City, are estimated to be over $430 million annually due to 2,000 premature deaths and 9,000 people suffering from chronic bronchitis. According to the Metro Manila Air Quality Improvement Sector Development in 2004, uniform reduction of 10 µg/Nm3 PM10 levels can reduce morbidity and mortality due to particulate matter pollution. The reduction values are summarized in Table 1-11. Table 1-11. Effects of PM10 reduction on air pollution-related morbidity and mortality. Effects of a uniform reduction of 10 µg/Nm3 of PM10 Morbidity Reduction of: > 23,000 cases of acute bronchitis > 400 cases of asthma > 30 cases of chronic bronchitis 20 respiratory cases per million people 4 cardiovascular cases per million people  Effects of a uniform reduction of 10 µg/Nm3 of PM10 Mortality 35-39 fewer deaths/million population from natural causes 5-28 fewer deaths/million population from cardiovascular causes 43-49 fewer deaths/million population from respiratory causes Source: Metro Manila Air Quality Improvement Sector Development, 2004 In 2009, World Bank published the Philippines’ Country Environmental Analysis and it was estimated that due to outdoor air pollution in urban areas, more than 1 million people get sick and 15,000 die prematurely every year. The annual cost of disease is estimated to be around Php 0.9 billion, and annual income loss from the mortality is more than Php 5.6 billion. Indoor pollution is caused by the use of coal and biomass for domestic energy needs, primarily for cooking of food. In the Philippines, the World Bank report also states that around half of the population uses fuel wood or charcoal for cooking. This causes several types of respiratory disease and premature death- around half a million illnesses that are linked to 6,000 deaths annually. Resulting economic costs reach more than Php 1.4 billion per year. Source: DOH, Philippine Health Statistics, 2010 Figure 1-20. Leading causes of mortality and morbidity attributable to air pollution, 2010. According to the most recent data of the Philippine Health Statistics, the leading cause of mortality in the Philippines attributable to air pollution are diseases of the heart, pneumonia, and chronic lower respiratory diseases, resulting in a total of 27,834 deaths in 2010. In the same year, acute respiratory infection, acute lower respiratory tract infection and pneumonia, and bronchitis are the main causes of morbidity in the country attributable to air pollution, resulting in a total of 433,810 cases. Figure 1-20 shows the summary of the report. The Philippine Cancer Society also reports that lung cancer cases and deaths attributable to air pollution are 2,930 and 2,700, respectively in 2005 and these values decreased to 1,948 and 1,561, respectively, in 2010. 1.3.2 Impacts on climate and influence on atmospheric conditions Air pollution has been linked to changes in climate through different mechanisms. For instance, particle pollutants affect climate directly by absorbing sunlight, thus heating the surface atmosphere. Such is the effect of black carbon, commonly known as soot. Indirectly, soot of finer sizes forms clouds with smaller droplet sizes, forming small cloud droplets that acts as mirrors and reflects back heat towards the earth’s surface. Direct effects include the general ability of soot to absorb heat from surroundings. This results in elevated ambient temperatures on the Earth’s surface that further leads to warmer air and ocean temperatures, more high-intensity rainfall events and more frequent heat waves. As ambient temperatures become much higher due to climate change, this also promotes the formation of ozone (O3) smog from nitrogen oxide compounds, thus aggravating atmospheric pollution and its health effects. Particles such as sulfates and nitrates on the other hand have a cooling effect, as it reflects sunlight. Indirectly, particles can affect climate by influencing precipitation and cloud formation by acting as condensation nuclei or ‘cloud seeds’ where water vapor condenses on. The PAGASA has published “Climate Change in the Philippines71” in 2011 discussing the climate trends in the country from 1951 to 2009, with the average period of 1971 to 2000 as a reference value. The key findings include increase in annual mean temperature by 0.57˚C and significant increase in number of hot days but decrease in cool nights. There is no indication of an increase in frequency of occurrence of typhoons, but a very slight increase in number of cyclones greater than 150kph and above. However, there had been no reference made on the actual effect of air pollution levels in the country on these changes in climate. Atmospheric conditions which can affect air pollutant levels include ambient temperature, pressure and amount of rainfall. Cooler temperatures during dry months make the air more dense, bringing pollutants at a much lower altitude where it is at breathing level. High pressure systems also induce inversion layers, wherein cold air is trapped close to the surface. This prevents pollution dispersion, and can lead to smog formation. In some of the monitoring stations in the Philippines where the samplers are coupled to or near a weather station, the basic observation is the decrease in particulate levels during rainy season as the pollutants are washed out by precipitation and there are stronger winds for pollutant dispersion. 1.3.3 Impacts on agriculture Poor air quality adversely affects organisms and the ecological systems with which they thrive in. Aside from affecting humans, air pollutants also have a detrimental impact on plants because of its immobility. Some of the major phytotoxic (substances which pose a certain toxicity to plants) pollutants are O3, SO2, NO2, H2S, F2 and peroxyl acyl nitrate, NH3 and particulate matter. Symptoms of the effects of these pollutants to crops are detailed in Error! Reference source not found.1-12. Effects of air pollution on plants can be visible, such as loss of color, necrosis, decrease in yield and morphological changes. Non-visible effects have also been determined wherein the physiological and biochemical process of the plant is altered, thus changing the rate of metabolism and photosynthesis. Table 1-12. Symptoms of effects of air pollutants on plants. Pollutant Symptoms* flecking, bronzing or bleaching of the leaf tissues Ozone visible foliar injury yield reductions acute injury: lesions SO2 Chronic injury: yellowing or chlorosis of the leaf, and bronzing (under surface of the leaves) Lesions Fluoride injury to plum foliage tips of the leaves build up injurious concentrations irregular, bleached, bifacial, necrotic lesions NH3 reddish, interveinal necrotic streaking or dark upper surface discolouration (grasses) inhibit the normal respiration and photosynthesis mechanisms within the leaf chlorosis and death of leaf tissue PM affect the normal action of pesticides and other agricultural chemicals increase soil pH to levels adverse to crop growth (alkaline dusts) Source: Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food, 2003 In a 2004 study made on a few selected agricultural crops (green chili, tomato, pumpkin, winged bean, spinach and rice) in Sri Lanka, exposure to ozone has resulted in leaf drop, visible damage to leaves and eventually plant death. Through modeling, a research on the global impact of surface ozone on agricultural crop yield was published in 2009 stating that in the Philippines, a 3.7% increase in relative soybean yield loss is projected from 2000 to 2030. However, more studies are yet to be done on the specific effects of exposure to air pollutants on major agricultural crops in the country. In agricultural regions where air pollution levels are high, impact analyses should also be prioritized to minimize economic losses and ensure food security. 1.3.4 Impacts on water quality Air pollutants remain in the atmosphere from a few hours to a few weeks, and for some, even months, depending on the actual pollutant and the environmental conditions of the area. Pollutants can be transported from one place to another, chemically react and be transformed into other types of compounds. Eventually, these pollutants can undergo atmospheric deposition directly into water bodies or onto land through precipitation, in dust or through gravity. Once in land, it can be eroded into water bodies mainly through surface run-off or water flow from land. Once the pollutants are in aquatic systems, it can affect the water quality by becoming water contaminants. During rainy season in the Philippines when measured air pollutant levels are observed to be less, the air pollutants may be dispersed, transported to other areas, directly deposited to water systems or carried by rainfall down to the land, and eventually end up in canal systems, rivers or oceans. Aside from the determination of pollutant levels in the atmosphere, its deposition rates should also be analyzed in order to have an idea of atmospheric contribution to levels of water pollution, ensuring an integrated approach to environmental safety and management for the country. 1.3.5 Other impacts: poor visibility Aside from alarming hazards to health, excessively high concentrations of air pollutants can result in poor visibility that may affect transportation safety. During New Year’s celebrations in the Philippines, pollutant levels go as high as ten times the NAAQGV due to the use of fireworks and firecrackers. 1.4 Air quality management 1.4.1 DENR/EMB From the enactment of RA 8749 in 1999 to 2015, the accomplishments of DENR EMB include the designation of airsheds throughout the Philippines, establishment and operationalization of the Air Quality Management Fund (AQMF), establishment of Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Network nationwide, emissions inventory every three years and management of mobile and stationary sources. These are done through Memorandum Circulars (MC), Department Administrative Orders (DAO), Joint and Administrative Orders (JAO). Airsheds One of the Air Quality Principles stated in the IRR of RA 8749 is the recognition that the cleaning of the environment is primarily area-based and that air quality management and control are most effective at the level of airsheds. As defined in the act, “Airsheds” are areas with similar climate, meteorology and topology which affect the interchange and diffusion of pollutants in the atmosphere. Sub-areas within airsheds may therefore have similar air quality, and face similar problems, development programs and prospects Figure 1-21. Designated Airsheds in the Philippines, as of 2015. As of 2015, there was a total of 22 airsheds in the Philippines. (See Figure 1-21). Also included are geothermal airsheds that are specially designated due to the presence of a geothermal plant in the area. For airsheds officially designated, Governing Boards have also been established which oversee the planning and implementation of air quality management policies and ensure strong coordination among government agencies and between government agencies and private sector / civil society. Air Quality Management Fund As established by the IRR of RA 8739, the Air Quality Management Fund (AQMF) is a special account in the National Treasury established to finance containment, removal, and clean-up operations of air pollution cases, guarantee restoration of ecosystems and rehabilitate areas affected by the acts of RA 8739 violators, to support research, enforcement and monitoring activities and capabilities of the relevant agencies, as well as to provide technical assistance to the relevant agencies. In order to do these undertakings, such fund may be allocated per airshed. In 2012, no budget was released by the DBM but in 2013, PHP 35 million was allocated to 16 regions (PHP 2 million each) and PHP 3 million to the DENR Central Office. In 2014, no budget was released but in 2015, DBM allocated PHP 35 million to EMB central and regional offices. The process of disbursement is the same as Regular Fund (101) wherein the Total Capital Outlay is PHP 31.5 million and the Total MOOE is PHP 3.5 million. Management of stationary sources All trade, industry, process, fuel-burning equipment or industrial plant emitting air pollutants are classified as stationary sources. All stationary sources must have a Permit to Operate (PTO), issued by the DENR upon compliance with the standards specified in the IRR of RA 8739 called the National Emission Standards for Source Specific Air Pollutants (NESSAP). In order to properly manage stationary sources, close monitoring of all firms within the region should be performed, imposing the necessary fees to be paid and issuance of a Notice of Violation (NOV) in the case of non- compliance. Pollution Control Officers (PCOs) are required to be designated by industries to oversee all operations related to air pollution source and control facilities, and to submit to the DENR Quarterly Self-Monitoring Reports. Establishment owners are encouraged to install high-technology facilities and perform mitigating measures to lessen air pollutants generated during their operation. In large-scale industries such as cement plants, beverages manufacturing plants and power generating plants, the Multipartite Monitoring Teams (MMT) of the project/company establishes ambient air quality monitoring stations. A Continuous Emission Monitoring System (CEMS) is specifically required to be installed in the following major industries for particulates and SO2 emissions: a) Fossil fuel-fired power plant over 10 MW rating (including NOx); b) Petroleum refinery, petrochemical industries (including NOx); c) Primary copper smelter (including NOx); d) Steel plant, ferro-alloy production facility (particulates only); and e) Cement Plant (particulates only) Industrial Emission Management Program The Industrial Emission Management Program (IEMP) ensures compliance of industries to the emission standards set by the Bureau. Thus, issuance of permit and regular monitoring is done. With the increasing number of stationary sources, extensive monitoring is required. In order to monitor all sources with potential to emit air pollution, the Bureau accredits Third party Source Emission Testing firms (TPSETF) to carry out source emission test and effectively perform sampling activities in accordance with the provisions of CAA and its Implementing Rules and Regulations. A total of nineteen (19) firms with a total of thirty one (31) teams are accredited to carry out the stack testing activity pursuant to DAO 2013-26. (See Table 1-13). The TPSETF undergoes written, oral and proficiency exam in order to pass the accreditation. These are done by the Sampling Assessment Team (SAT) which are selected personnel of AQMS from the central and regional offices. The said team also conducts regular monitoring/observation of accredited firms to ensure that they continuously follow proper testing procedure. Annual training on stack emission testing are also carried out in order to provide lectures to stack testers aside from the regular coordination meeting to discuss updates, issues and concerns. Table 1-13. List of Third Party Source Emission Testing firms,2015. NO. FIRM NAME 1 (Elite) Environmental Life Industrial Technologies 2 Aeronics Incorporated 3 Alpine systems Inc. 4 Berkman Systems Inc. 5 CRL Calabarquez Corp. 6 Environair Asia 7 Fastlab First Analytical Services and Technical Cooperative 8 Geosphere Technologies 9 Global Environmental 10 GMSI – GM Sandoval Inc. 11 Greentek Engineering Environmental Services 12 Industramach 13 Omli-Ostrea Mineral Laboratories 14 Optimal Laboratories 15 PEASCORP – Progress Equipment and Systems Corporation Philippines 16 SAGE – Sugar Regulatory Administration 17 SGS Philippines Inc. 18 Shema Environmental Testing Laboratory 19 TADCHEM Marketing Source: EMB Management of mobile sources Management of mobile sources is of utmost importance in urban regions, which have a significant share in the emissions. Mobile source emissions inventory is given emphasis in most, if not all regions in the country. Motor vehicle emission Based on the 2012 emissions inventory, mobile sources contributed 69% to the total emission in the national level and 90% of the total emission in Metro Manila, compared to area source and stationary source. Several measures and activities were carried out to reduce mobile emissions. For brand new motor vehicles, all vehicle types must meet the emission standard before they are introduced in the market for sale. They should be evaluated for their compliance with the prescribed exhaust emission limits/standards before a Certificate of Conformity (COC) is issued. Pursuant to RA 8749 and its IRR, Certificates of Conformity (COCs) are issued to all brand new motor vehicle models/types that comply with the specified emission limits. This is to ensure that the vehicle complies with the emission standard set pursuant to Clean Air Act. From 2010 to 2015, the number of COCs increased from 327 in 2010 to 546 in 2014 (67%) and further increased by 76% to 963 in 2015. These increases were due to the surge in the number of COCs issued for motor vehicles – 437 in 2014 and 848 in 2015. (Figure 1-22). The increase is due to increased number of Euro 2/II COC application which ended in December 2015, as per the policy issued by the Department on the implementation of Euro 4/IV Emission Compliance (DAO 2015-04) which began in 2016. 1000 900 115 800 700 600 500 109 848 400 300 76 94 141 92 437 200 251 212 249 211 100 0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Motor Vehicle Motorcycle Figure 1-22. Number of COCs issued from 2010 to 2015. Motor Vehicle Inspection Program Pursuant to RA 8749, PETCs are DTI accredited, LTO-authorized and use equipment that are DENR-certified. Monitoring of PETCs is acco