Curriculum Planning PDF

Topic 5 Curriculum Planning By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following: 1. Describe Tyler's model of curriculum development. 2. Explain the features of Taba's curriculum development model. 3....

Topic 5 Curriculum Planning By the end of this topic, you should be able to do the following: 1. Describe Tyler's model of curriculum development. 2. Explain the features of Taba's curriculum development model. 3. Describe Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis model. 4. Compare Tyler, Taba, and Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis models. 5. Differentiate between the levels of educational goals. 6. Compare the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. 7. Formulate objectives using the different taxonomies. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 124 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING Topics 2, 3 and 4 discussed how philosophy, psychology, society, and historical events influence the curriculum. In Topics 5, 6, 7 and 8, we will examine the different phases of the curriculum development process. The first phase is curriculum planning, followed by curriculum design, implementation, and evaluation. In this topic, we examine the curriculum development process by referring to three well-known models: the Tyler model, the Taba model, and the Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis model. In the second part of the topic, we will focus on the first phase of the process, namely, curriculum planning which involves establishing the goals and objectives of a curriculum based on the agreed educational philosophy. ACTIVITY 5.1 (a) What message is this diagram trying to convey? (b) How far are these characteristics part of your education system? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 125 5.1 THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS The curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-learning process, whether a school, college, university or training organisation. The curriculum is based on the textbooks, how teachers are trained, instructional development plans, student evaluation, preparation guides for students and teachers, and setting standards. Thus, without a curriculum, no educational institution can function efficiently. Given the curriculumÊs importance, several questions were raised on how it is developed, organised, guiding principles and assessed. A curriculum is a plan for ordering and directing studentsÊ teaching-learning experiences in an educational institution. Curriculum development is known as providing a plan and keeping it running smoothly. Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which includes planning (determination of aims and goals), design, implementation, and evaluation. Since curriculum development implies change and betterment, curriculum improvement is often used synonymously with curriculum development. In some cases, improvement is viewed as the result of development (Oliva, 1982). Curriculum development is a process that continuously strives to find newer, better, and more efficient means to educate the next generation. 5.2 MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT What is a model? A model consists of interacting parts that serve as a guide or procedure for action. Some models are simple, while others are very complex. In many instances, models are more similar than different and are often refinements or revisions of earlier models. There are many models of curriculum development. However, in this topic, we will discuss three well-known models: Tyler, Taba, and Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis models. Each of these models is named after its originator. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 126 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 5.2.1 The Tyler Model One of the best-known curriculum models is the Tyler model. The model was introduced in 1949 by Ralph Tyler in his classic book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, in which he asked the following four questions: What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? How can these educational experiences be effectively organised? How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? In essence, TylerÊs questions represent the four-step sequence of: Identifying the purposes or objectives; Selecting the means for the attainment or achievement of these objectives, i.e. what educational or teaching-learning experiences have to be provided for students; Organising these educational or teaching-learning experiences; and Evaluating the outcomes or what students have attained or achieved. The „purposes‰ above refers to „objectives.‰ When developing curriculum objectives, the data can be gathered from three sources: the subject area (e.g. science, mathematics, geography, history), the learners (e.g. economically disadvantaged, gifted, varying academic abilities) and society (e.g. ethics, patriotism, national unity, environmental awareness, employment, market needs). Figure 5.1 presents TylerÊs curriculum development model. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 127 Figure 5.1: TylerÊs Curriculum Development Model Source: Adapted from Hunskin and Ornestin (2016) After identifying the objectives which refer to the desired learning outcomes, the curriculum developer has to pass them through two screens: the philosophy screen and the psychology screen. The results in specific instructional objectives stated are observable and measurable outcomes. The next step is the selection of educational experiences which enable the attainment of the stipulated objectives. The learning experiences will have to be selected based on what is known about human learning and development. The learning experiences must consider the previous experiences learners bring to a situation. Next, Tyler talked about the organisation and sequencing of these learning experiences. He emphasised that the experiences should be properly organised to enhance learning. He suggested that ideas, concepts, values, and skills be used as organising elements woven into the curriculum. These elements would serve as the organisers link content within a particular subject (e.g. history, economics, science) and also determine the method of instruction or delivery of content. We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 128 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING Finally, Tyler proposed that evaluation should be an important part of curriculum development. Educators needed to know whether the selected learning experiences produced the intended results. For example, if the objective is to develop critical thinking among students, did the learning experiences selected achieve this objective? Through evaluation, it will be possible to determine whether the curriculum was effective or ineffective. We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Topic 8. There is no denying that TylerÊs thinking has greatly influenced the field of curriculum, especially curriculum development. Despite much criticism of the model as being too linear, that is, cause and effect, there is no denying that his thinking continues to be popular (Hunkins & Ornstein, 2016). The four questions he raised had and still have great appeal because they are reasonable and workable. SELF-CHECK 5.1 1. What is the role of objectives in TylerÊs model? 2. Why do objectives have to be screened by philosophy and psychology? 3. Give three specific examples of „learning experiences‰ according to the Tyler model. 4. What are elements? Give specific examples. 5. What is the purpose of evaluation? Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 129 5.2.2 The Taba Model Hilda Taba proposed another approach to curriculum development in her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice, published in 1962. She argued that there was a definite order in creating a curriculum. She believed that teachers, who teach the curriculum, should participate in developing it, which led to the model being called the grass-roots model. She noted seven major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers would have major input (refer to Figure 5.2). Figure 5.2: TabaÊs Curriculum Development Model Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 130 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING She believed that the Tyler model was more of an administrative model. The Tyler model involved too much top-down decision-making. Administrators in the Central Office or the Ministry of Education made the greater portion of curriculum decisions. Taba felt that the users of the programme should design a curriculum. Teachers should begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning units for their students. She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to curriculum development. This approach means starting with the specifics and building toward a general design. This approach was the opposite of the more traditional deductive approach, which starts from the general design and then works towards the specifics. Taba proposed seven major steps to her grass-roots model in which teachers would have major input throughout the curriculum development process (refer to Table 5.1): Table 5.1: Curriculum Development Process Step Description Diagnosis of need The teacher, the curriculum designer, starts the process by identifying the needs of students for whom the curriculum is planned. For example, the majority of students are unable to think critically. Formulation of After the teacher has identified needs that require attention, objectives they specify objectives to be accomplished. Selection of content The objectives selected or created suggest the subject matter or content of the curriculum. Not only should objectives and content match, but the validity and significance of the content chosen also needs to be determined, i.e. the relevancy and significance of the content. The organisation A teacher cannot just select content but must organise it in of content some sequence, considering the maturity of learners, their academic achievement, and their interests. We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6. Selection of learning Content must be presented to students, and students must be experiences engaged with the content. At this point, the teacher selects instructional methods involving the students with the content. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 131 The organisation of Just as content must be sequenced and organised, so must learning activities the learning activities. Often, the sequence of the learning activities is determined by the content. But the teacher needs to remember the students they will be teaching. Evaluation and The curriculum planner must determine just what objectives means of evaluation have been accomplished. Evaluation procedures need to be designed to evaluate learning outcomes. We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Topic 8. TabaÊs model has many merits. However, some argue that teacher involvement throughout the process assumes that they have the expertise. Perhaps more importantly, the time to engage in such an extensive and intensive curricular activity. Teachers involved in the early stages of curriculum development may not be an advantage. It does not necessarily guarantee an effective curriculum since it is a highly specialised process. However, it cannot be denied that curriculum development requires the involvement of many parties at various stages of the process. It involves individuals from the Central Office or the Ministry of Education, district education officers, principals, teachers, community leaders, subject matter experts, academics and even students. Usually, curriculum developers at the Central Office are tasked with directing those actions that bring together various participants in curriculum development. Teachers may only be involved in implementing the curriculum. At the same time, the Ministry of Education, academics, content specialists, and employers determine the main part of the curriculum. SELF-CHECK 5.2 Explain why TabaÊs model is called the grass-roots model. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 132 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING ACTIVITY 5.2 1. Do you think teachers should be the main decision-makers in developing a curriculum? Why? 2. To what extent are teachers involved in developing curriculum in your country? Discuss your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. 5.2.3 The Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis Model Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis (1981) viewed curriculum development as consisting of four steps (refer to Figure 5.3). Figure 5.3: Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis Curriculum Development Model According to them, a curriculum is „a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school centre‰ (p. 24). Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 133 Goals, Objectives, and Domains The model indicates that curriculum planners begin by specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum domain, and they advocate four major goals or domains: personal development, human relations, continued learning skills and specialisation. The goals, objectives, and domains are selected after carefully considering several external variables such as findings from educational research, accreditation standards, views of community groups and others. Curriculum Designing Start designing the curriculum after deciding the goals, objectives, established domains, and learning activities according to studentsÊ needs. These are some of the questions that need to be answered at this stage of the development process. We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6. Curriculum Implementation The implementation stage involves several processes: selecting instructional objectives, teaching methods and strategies, and alignment of learning outcomes. Topic 7 will discuss this stage further. Evaluation Finally, the curriculum planner and teachers engage in evaluation. Ensure that the instructional goals and objectives are evaluated using various techniques. This stage will be further discussed in Topic 8. The three models reveal similarities and differences. All models outline a sequence of steps to be taken in curriculum development. Interestingly, the Taba model emphasises the role of teachers in curriculum development. In contrast, the Tyler model focuses on the two screensÊ objectives that have to pass through. However, remember that models often are incomplete; they do not and cannot show every detail and aspect of the complicated curriculum process. To depict every aspect of curriculum development would require an exceedingly complex and intricate model. In looking at the three models, we cannot say that any model is superior to another. Some curriculum planners have followed the Tyler model with considerable success. But this does not mean that the Tyler model represents the ultimate in models for curriculum development or that all educators are satisfied with it. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 134 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING SELF-CHECK 5.3 1. What is meant by „domains‰ in the Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis model? 2. What must teachers do to implement a curriculum? 3. What is the role of evaluation in the Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis model? 5.3 GOALS OF EDUCATION The cartoon at the beginning of this topic shows the kinds of decisions that curriculum workers have to make in some education system somewhere in the world. Some decisions are relatively simple, such as adding a course, deleting a course, or making minor changes to content. Other decisions are sweeping and far-reaching such as changing the levels of schooling from 6-3-2-2 (six years of primary or elementary school, three years of lower secondary, two years of upper secondary and two years of pre-university or matriculation) to 6-4-2 (six years of primary or elementary school, four years of secondary and two years of pre-university or enrollment). How does one decide? All three models of curriculum development emphasised the need from the onset to plan statements of the purpose of the education system. What do you want students to be able to do after completing primary schools or secondary schools? In Topic 2, we discussed the views of various Western and Eastern philosophers on what they thought the school should be and aim to achieve. In Topic 3, we discussed various psychological explanations of human learning, which provide guidelines for what students can achieve and how they should be taught. In Topic 4, we examined what society demands of its education system, providing insight into what schools should aspire. Based on these sources, the curriculum planner will have to decide on an education philosophy from which the goals of education may be derived. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 135 5.4 LEVELS OF GOALS Instructional goals can be written at several levels involving many curriculum workers: teachers, subject specialists, academics, principals, teacher trainers, administrators, and others who may be engaged in curriculum efforts on several levels simultaneously (refer to Figure 5.4). The model flows from a broad and wide educational philosophy to the more specific instructional objectives implemented at the classroom level. Figure 5.4: Curriculum Planning Levels Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 136 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 5.4.1 Educational Philosophy The initial task of curriculum planners is identifying an educational vision or philosophy that will form the basis of planning. The vision statement or philosophy provides guidelines for curriculum developers in organising and incorporating programmes and activities into the curriculum. It reflects the desires of the nation and the major theme paving the way for the future. The philosophical vision is usually derived through discussions with various people in the country and also from reading the literature. Then it is reformulated to achieve the vision. The educational philosophy of an educational system is a reflection of national policies. For example, use one language instruction to unite the different communities, provide free primary education to reduce drop-outs, and have a common national curriculum to reduce varying interpretations. The educational philosophy will also reflect national priorities such as the development aspects of the nation, sociocultural needs of the people and levels of achievement of the children at different cycles. Development needs have to be identified the priorities. For example, does the country want more graduates, or should the emphasis be on basic education? Concerning sociocultural needs, the culture of peace, conflict resolutions, etc., could emerge as important aspects that should be highlighted in the school curriculum. The needs of disabled people and adults who have lost learning opportunities must also be incorporated. Opportunities for vocational and career education have to be provided in the curriculum. Therefore, the vocational interests of students have to be assessed. Levels of achievements relate to childrenÊs understanding of concepts at different grades to enable them to complete the skills needed to move on to higher grades. These must be identified to bring quality to learning and avoid wastage in the learning programmes. In addition, curriculum planners should not only study the current best practices, customs, and beliefs about education in the local schools. They should still compare these to the educational research literature on best practices in teaching, learning, and curriculum design. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 137 ACTIVITY 5.3 Read the case study and answer the following questions: The curriculum framework is a set of principles and guidelines which provides both a philosophical base and an organisational structure for curriculum development initiatives at all levels, be they nationally, provincially, community or school-based. The vision for South Africa encompasses a prosperous, truly united, democratic and internationally competitive country with literate, creative and critical citizens, leading productive, self-fulfilled lives in a country free of violence, discrimination and prejudice. The realisation of this vision requires appropriate, lifelong education, training and development to empower people to participate effectively in all the processes of a democratic society and to excel in fields like human and natural resource development, human and natural sciences, the arts and technology. The primary task of educational policy makers is the establishment of a just and equitable education and training system which is relevant, of high quality and is accessible to all learners, irrespective of race, colour, gender, age, religion, ability or language. A priority for both national and provincial education departments is, therefore, the creation of a transformative, democratic, open learning system, fostering in all its users, a strong commitment to lifelong learning and development. The curriculum framework serves as a strategic intervention designed to facilitate and guide the development of a transformed education and training system in a practicable and sustainable way. It takes as point of departure, that successful modern economies and societies require citizens with a strong foundation of general education, the desire and ability to continue to learn to adapt to, and develop new knowledge, skills and technologies, to move flexibly between occupations, to take responsibility for personal performance, to set and achieve high standards, and to work cooperatively. Source: CURRICULUM (2005). Lifelong learning for the 21st century: A userÊs guide. Available at http://www.polity.org.za/html/govdocs/misc/ curr2005.html?rebookmark=1#Principles Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 138 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING (a) Why do you think that in the vision of South Africa it is emphasised that the country should be free of violence, discrimination, and prejudice? (b) What are the goals of the curriculum framework of South Africa? (c) How are these educational goals similar or different from those of your country? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. 5.4.2 Educational Goals Educational goals are outcomes to be achieved by students at the end of a particular period in school. While certain goals are universal and run throughout the period, some are specific to particular levels and times, meaning that a child will face different goals at different levels. The goals are the basic elements in curriculum planning and should be clear and well-articulated without ambiguities. All these relate to human behaviour. The country recovering from a civil warÊs key educational goals might be peace, developing self-confidence, cooperation, and responsible citizenship needed to overcome the existing conflicts. Many goals, such as developing creativity, mental health, coping with change, informed participation, basic skills and so forth, end on the vision and cultural needs of the society. Connecting development needs to education is an important strategy to achieve a greater impact of education on society. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 139 ACTIVITY 5.4 Read the following text and answer the questions. In 1990, the President of the United States and state governors issued a list of six goals for the nation's schools which stated that by the year 2000: All children in America will start school ready to learn. The high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90%. American students will leave grades 4, 8 and 12 having demonstrated competency in challenging subject matter (English language, mathematics, science, history and geography). US students will be first in the world in science and mathematics achievement. Every adult American will be literate and will possess the knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global economy and exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship. Every school in America will be free of drugs and violence and will offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning. Source: National Goals for Education (1990). Washington D.C (a) What seems to be the emphasis of these goals? What is lacking? (b) Compare these goals with the goals of your education system. Discuss these questions with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 140 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 5.4.3 Curriculum Goals Goals provide direction for the curriculum. A curriculum goal is a purpose or desired end stated in general terms. No period is specified when the goals must be reached. Neither is there any mention of the criteria for achievement or mastery. Curriculum planners expect students to accomplish it due to exposure to segments or all of the programme in a particular educational institution. For example: „Students shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning as good citizens in their school and community.‰ „Schools should seek to promote studentsÊ physical and emotional health.‰ 5.4.4 Curriculum Objectives A curriculum objective describes the endpoints or desired outcomes of the curriculum, a unit, a lesson plan, or a learning activity. Curriculum objectives are derived from the curriculum goal. They specify the performance standards for the students for whom the curriculum is designed. From the curriculum goal, „Students shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary to function daily, as good citizens in their school and community setting.‰ They specify and describe curriculum outcomes in more specific terms than goals or aims do. The following curriculum objectives can be derived: Most students will obey the rules and regulations of the school. More than 80% of students will participate in at least one voluntary activity. Note how the curriculum objective refines the curriculum goal. Many curriculum objectives can emanate from a single curriculum goal. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 141 ACTIVITY 5.5 Read the following text and answer the questions. Malaysian Primary School Science Curriculum Curriculum Goal or Aim Primary Science education aims to develop knowledgeable, skilful, thinking, caring, dynamic and progressive individuals. They can contribute towards creating a society that practices science and technology culture, is responsible towards the environment, and appreciates nature and GodÊs creations. Sample Curriculum Objectives The Primary School Science Curriculum will enable students to: Acquire an understanding of science concepts and principles in an integrated manner and be able to relate them with natural phenomena and everyday experiences. Apply science knowledge and skills creatively and intelligently in problem-solving and decision-making. Develop further the intrinsic values of science, such as curiosity, open-mindedness, intellectual honesty and perseverance. Develop scientific and manipulative skills through the discovery-inquiry approach. Develop skills in conducting scientific investigations and research. Sample Instructional Goals for Year 4 (A) Understand that breathing is a general characteristic of living things. (B) Know that light can be dispersed. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 142 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING Sample Instructional Objectives (A1) Explain how breathing takes place in humans. (A2) State the three methods of breathing in animals. (B1) State that sunlight consists of seven colours. (B2) Explain the formation of a rainbow. Sample Curriculum Objectives The Primary School Science Curriculum will enable students to: Acquire an understanding of science concepts and principles in an integrated manner and able to relate them with natural phenomena and everyday experiences. Apply science knowledge and skills creatively and intelligently in problem solving and decision making. Develop further the intrinsic values of science such as inquisitiveness, open-mindedness, intellectual honesty and perseverance. Develop scientific and manipulative skills through the discovery- inquiry approach. Develop skills in conducting scientific investigations and research. Source: Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education Malaysia (July, 1997). Curriculum specifications for smart schools. Kuala Lumpur: Author. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 143 (a) How is the goal of the Malaysian primary school curriculum different from the stated curriculum objectives? (b) Which curriculum objectives focus on the knowledge, skills and attitudes/values to be acquired by students? (c) How is „Instructional Goal A‰ implemented in the classroom? Share your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. 5.4.5 Instructional Goals At the instructional phase, curriculum objectives are translated initially into instructional goals. An instructional goal is a statement of performance expected of each student in a class stated in general terms. It is the general intention of a course of instruction without criteria of achievement. For example, „Students will show an understanding of the tropical rainforest‰. It indicates the performance expected, i.e. „understand‰, but the performance level or criteria is not stated. So, it is not easily measured. Instructional goals point the way to instructional objectives. 5.4.6 Instructional Objectives An instructional objective is a statement of performance to be demonstrated by each student in a class. It is stated in a form that is measurable and observable. Other names for instructional objectives are specific objectives, learning outcomes, behavioural objectives, performance objectives, and competencies. LetÊs examine in detail about instructional objectives. You must state clearly the instructional objectives you intend to achieve at the end of a period of instruction. An example of an instructional objective is: „At the end of the lesson, students should be able to describe five characteristics of the tropical rainforest.‰ Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 144 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING The instructional objectives help teachers with the following elements (refer to Figure 5.5): Figure 5.5: Elements in Instructional Objectives INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES OR 5.5 LEARNING OUTCOMES Instructional objectives are the learning outcomes desired and are of primary importance in developing a curriculum. Objectives point to the appropriate content to be selected, how teaching and learning are to be conducted and ways of assessing performance in the subject. In the past, the traditional description of a course referred to content; i.e. what the teacher would cover. There has, however, been a shift in thinking about teaching and learning with learning. The learner is now seen to be of primary importance. Teaching then becomes the means of facilitating learning in the learner. In the teacher-centred approach, teaching is generally seen to be about the transmission of knowledge. The focus is on what the teacher did and the goals of the subject area. It also focuses on the content the teacher would transmit. In the learner-centred approach, however, the focus is on what the learner does. The subject area is usually expressed in how the learner will change due to the learning content. The statements describing the change in student behaviour which should result from taking the course are known as „intended learning objectives‰ or „intended learning outcomes,‰ „objectives‰ or „outcomes‰ for short. Teaching becomes a series of strategies devised to help students achieve these objectives or outcomes. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 145 In stating an instructional objective or learning outcome, active verbs indicate what students must do to demonstrate learning. It is not enough to say, „Yes, I understand that.‰ But how do I know that you understand unless you can demonstrate that you do? Here are some examples of learning outcomes: On completion of this 45 minutes lesson on tropical rainforest, you should be able to: Define the terms: evergreen, humidity, buttress roots, and canopy. Locate the distribution of the rainforest on a world map. Explain why there is little undergrowth in a rainforest. ACTIVITY 5.6 Read the following content and answer the questions. Proponents of behavioural objectives argue that it: forces the teachers to be precise about what is to be accomplished enables the teacher to tell students what they must achieve makes evaluation easier because it is measurable makes it easier for the selection of instructional objectives makes accountability easier Opponents of behavioural objectives argue that it: restricts creativity leads to trivial or unimportant competencies dehumanising downplays affective outcomes Source: Adapted from Oliva, P. (1982) Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 146 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING (a) How do behavioural objectives restrict creativity among students? (b) Do you agree with the opponents of behavioural objectives? Justify. (c) State one other reason each supporting the proponents and opponents of behavioural objectives. Discuss your answers with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. CLASSIFYING INSTRUCTIONAL 5.6 OBJECTIVES OR LEARNING OUTCOMES A taxonomy is a system for classifying something, such as learning objectives or learning outcomes. The classification of learning objectives or outcomes was developed by a team led by Benjamin Bloom in the 1950s. Three domains were addressed, and each taxonomy of abilities, emotions and skills was developed. Taxonomies of learning objectives or learning outcomes are used to categorise goals for student learning. Taxonomies are based on the assumption that different types of objectives are learned through different mental processes. The three learning domains are (refer to Figure 5.6): Figure 5.6: Learning Domains The three domains remain a useful conceptual tool for thinking about what a body of content requires students to do and how students should demonstrate their learning through their behaviour. It is valuable because it draws attention to the need to be clear about the complexity of intellectual tasks a subject might require. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 147 5.6.1 Cognitive Domain BloomÊs taxonomy cognitive domain is perhaps the best-known and most widely used. It was published in 1956. It lists a personÊs observable and unobservable intellectual abilities, such as comprehending information, organising ideas, and evaluating information and actions. It categorises the types of cognitive learning outcomes that are featured at all levels of the curriculum. Bloom and his associates classified cognitive learning into six categories: remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate and create (refer to Table 5.2). Table 5.2: Cognitive Domain Examples of Verbs for Category Description Stating Objectives or Outcomes Remember Retain, recall and Arrange, define, identify, indicate, label, recognise knowledge list, match, memorise, recall, recite. Understand Translate and interpret Compare, classify, describe, discuss, knowledge explain, give examples, interpret, paraphrase, predict, present, report, rewrite, summarise. Apply Apply knowledge to Calculate, complete, demonstrate, different situations execute, illustrate, implement, modify, organise, practise, prepare, solve, show, use, write. Analyse Break down information to Categorise, contrast, compare, criticise, look at relationships debate, differentiate, experiment, inspect, infer, investigate, organise, outline, question, separate, test. Evaluate Make judgments based on Attribute, argue, assess, check, compare, evidence found conclude, contrast, criticise, critique, defend, examine, justify, measure, recommend, support, reflect. Create Compile information to Arrange, calculate, compose, construct, generate new solutions design, develop, devise, formulate, generate, hypothesise, plan, prepare, produce, propose, revise, summarise, synthesise. Source: Anderson & Krathwohl (2001) Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 148 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 5.6.2 Affective Domain After the appearance of the cognitive domain, Krathwohl and Benjamin (1965) developed a taxonomy of objectives in the affective domain in 1964 (refer to Table 5.3). The affective domain relates to emotions, such as feelings, values, how we appreciate something, enthusiasm for something, what motivates us to do something, and attitudes towards something. Table 5.3: Affective Domain Examples of Verbs Category Description for Stating Objectives or Outcomes Receiving The studentÊs willingness to receive Attend, be aware, listen, and attend to information/activity reply, show, alert, use, (e.g. textbook, classroom activity). watch, select, tolerate, Receiving involves the willingness follow, ask. to receive or accept and focus attention. Responding It refers to active participation by Agree, answer, the student. The student actively communicate, comply, attends by responding in the consent, contribute, class and is involved in the cooperate, help, inquire, teaching-learning setting. They obey, participate, gain satisfaction from engaging question, request, report, in activities. respond, seek, volunteer. Valuing The student sees worth or value in Accept, adopt, approve, what is being learned or the activity complete, commit, desire, being done. The student does not display, exhibit, express, merely obey or comply but does so initiate, invite, prefer, because they are intrinsically share, study, work. motivated. Organisation The student brings together many Adapt, alter, arrange, different values and attempts to classify, compare, defend, resolve the conflicts between the establish, generalise, values. They see how new values integrate, modify, order, are related to existing values and rank, synthesise. try to establish a balance. Through this process, they build a value system. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 149 Characterisation The student internalises the values. Act, behave, conform, In other words, they adopt the devote, display, endure, values as their own. The values exemplify, function, internalised determines the maintain, practise, behaviour of the student. perform, uphold, use, The behaviour is consistent and influence. predictable. Source: Krathwohl & Bloom (1964) 5.6.3 Psychomotor Domain The psychomotor domain is less known compared to the other two taxonomies. There are several interpretations of the domain, and one of them was developed by Dave in 1970 (refer to Table 5.4). The psychomotor domain involves physical movement, coordination and use of the motor-skill areas. Developments of these skills require practice and are measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures or techniques in execution. Table 5.4: Psychomotor Domain Examples of Verbs Category Description for Stating Objectives or Outcomes Imitation The student indicates a readiness Assemble, carry out, to learn a certain complex skill. copy, construct, repeat, Imitation includes repeating an duplicate, practise, act that has been demonstrated reproduce, start, try, or explained. It includes trial and volunteer, sketch, follow. error until an appropriate response is achieved. Manipulation The student continues to practise All the verbs for imitation the skill until it becomes habitual plus the following: and can be performed with some acquire, conduct, do, confidence. The response is more execute, operate, perform, complex, but they are still not sure produce, progress, use, of themselves. operate. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 150 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING Precision The student attains the skill and All the verbs for imitation proficiency indicated by a quick, and manipulation plus the smooth and accurate performance. following: achieve, The response is complex and automatise, exceed, excel, performed without hesitation. master, reach, refine, surpass, accomplish. Articulation The skill is well developed. The Adapt, change, alter, student is involved at an even reorganise, rearrange, higher level of precision and can revise. adapt the skill according to different requirements. Naturalisation The skill is automatic, and the Arrange, compose, refine, student can experiment and create create, design, originate, new ways of using the skill. transcend. Source: Dave (1970) The three learning domains provide guidelines for developing instructional objectives and learning outcomes in a curriculum plan. The taxonomies guide teachers to move their learners from the lower outcomes to higher levels of learning in each domain. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 151 ACTIVITY 5.7 1. Suppose you are heading a project on developing a curriculum for a particular course or subject. Which of these three models of curriculum development would you adopt to guide you? Why? 2. Have a look at any course or programme. (a) Is there a clear statement of curriculum and instructional objectives to be achieved? (b) Should a student be clear on the learning outcomes? Do the objectives delineate the course content? (c) Is there a direct relationship between the objectives and the teaching-learning methods employed in the subject? (d) Can the summative assessment be done by anything other than class tests and examinations? (e) Is there any mention of affective learning in the subject? (f) If not, what would be appropriate affective learning objectives for the subject? Discuss these questions with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 152 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which includes the determination of aims and goals, design, implementation, and evaluation. The Tyler model focuses on four aspects: – the purpose of education; – the educational experiences to be provided; – the organisation of educational experiences; and – evaluation to determine the attainment of goals. The Taba model emphasises the need for teachers who teach the curriculum to participate in developing it. The Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis model consist of four phases: − goals and domains; − curriculum design; − implementation; and − evaluation. Levels of goals: − educational philosophy; − educational goals; − curriculum goals; − curriculum objectives; − instructional goals; and − instructional objectives. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING 153 An instructional objective or learning outcome specify the behaviour desired, the conditions in which the behaviour is to be exhibited and the criteria for evaluating achievement. The learning domains are the cognitive domain (intellectual abilities), the affective domain (emotions and feelings), and the psychomotor domain (skills). Affective domain Instructional goals Cognitive domain Instructional objectives Curriculum development Psychomotor domain Curriculum goals Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis Curriculum objectives Taba model Educational philosophy Tyler model Anderson, L., & Krathwohl, D. A. (2001). Taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman. Dave, R. H. (1970). Psychomotor levels. Developing and Writing Educational Objectives, 33–34. Hunkins, F. P., & Ornstein, A. C. (2016). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues. Pearson Education. Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1964). Taxanomy of educational objectives handbook II: Affective domain. David McKay Company. Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1969). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 154 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM PLANNING Oliva, G. M. (1982). Toward continuity in music curricula. Music Educators Journal, 69(3), 46–47. Oliva, P. F. (1982). Developing the curriculum. Ally and Bacon. Saylor, J. G., Alexander, W. M., & Lewis, A. J. (1974). Curriculum planing for better teaching and learning (4th ed.). Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Prentice-Hall. Chapter 4: Studies of subject matter. Hak Cipta © Open University Malaysia (OUM)