Anthropogenic Ecosystems PDF

Anthropogenic Ecosystems 02 Agroecosystems Dr. Bernhard Eitzinger | [email protected] M.Sc. Julius Reiff | [email protected] Dr. Jens Schirmel | [email protected] iES Landau, Institute for Environmental Sciences Ecosystem Analysis...

Anthropogenic Ecosystems 02 Agroecosystems Dr. Bernhard Eitzinger | [email protected] M.Sc. Julius Reiff | [email protected] Dr. Jens Schirmel | [email protected] iES Landau, Institute for Environmental Sciences Ecosystem Analysis 1  FEEDBACK Paradox of Pesticides Errors in dealing with complex systems 1) Incorrect target description: Repair service behavior instead of No refuge Outside system viability 2) Unlinked situation analysis: Data flood instead of structural analysis. Inside refuge Unsprayed Weeks before/after spraying Wikipedia.org 2  FEEDBACK Paradox of Pesticides Errors in dealing with complex systems 3) Irreversible focus instead of reflection/adaptation No refuge Outside 4) Unobserved side effects instead of if-then-test Inside refuge Unsprayed Weeks before/after spraying Wikipedia.org 3  FEEDBACK Paradox of Pesticides 1 week later Errors Unsprayed: 5.0 mites Sprayed: 2.2 mites in dealing with complex systems 5 weeks later Unsprayed: 9.6 mites 5) Tendency to overdrive Sprayed: 67.9 mites 77.4 mites 58.2 mites 30.1 mites State regulation instead of process No refuge Outside regulation 6) Tendency to authoritarian behavior instead of (self-)reflection Inside refuge Unsprayed Weeks before/after spraying Wikipedia.org 4  Strawberry cultivation Goal: Highest possible strawberry yield High yielding Monoculture varieties Fertilisation and Irrigation 5  Strawberry cultivation Goal: Highest possible strawberry yield too short a season for pollinators High yielding Monoculture varieties Fertilisation and weakly competitive Irrigation varieties Susceptible to insect pests Soil degeneration Large, heavy, soft Susceptible to Fruits pest fungi 6  Strawberry cultivation Goal: Highest possible strawberry yield too short a season for pollinators High yielding Monoculture varieties Fertilisation and weakly competitive Irrigation varieties Susceptible to insect pests Soil degeneration Large, heavy, soft Susceptible to Fruits pest fungi Spreading of weeds Fruit lying on the ground 7  Strawberry cultivation Goal: Highest possible strawberry yield too short a season for pollinators High yielding Monoculture varieties Fertilisation and weakly competitive Irrigation varieties Susceptible to insect pests Soil degeneration Insecticide use Large, heavy, soft Susceptible to Fruits pest fungi Spreading of weeds Fruit lying on the ground Use of fungicides Use of 8 herbicides Mulch (straw, foil)  Strawberry cultivation Goal: Highest possible strawberry yield too short a season for pollinators High yielding Monoculture varieties Fertilisation and weakly competitive Irrigation varieties Susceptible to insect Unnoticed side effects pests Soil degeneration Insecticide use Large, heavy, soft Susceptible to Fruits pest fungi Spreading of weeds Fruit lying on the ground Use of fungicides Use of 9 herbicides Mulch (straw, foil)  Modern agriculture Main objective: Providing people with food, energy and resources 10  Systems Approaches Main objective: Maintain and promote the system's ability to survive Secondary objective: Provide people with food, energy and resources e.g. Permaculture, Agroecology, Regenerative Agriculture, etc. 11  Agroecology Traditional and indigenous landuse practices Ecosystems Ecology Agroecology Applied scientific discipline Agricultural practice Movement of practitioners (spreading from South America) 12  Permaculture Traditional and indigenous landuse practices Ecosystems Ecology Agroecology Permaculture Applied scientific discipline Design System for farms Agricultural practice Agricultural practice Movement of practitioners Movement of practitioners (spreading from South America) (spreading from Australia/USA) 13  Principles to deal with Complexity Ten Elements of Agroecology Twelve Permaculture Principles (FAO) (David Holmgren) 14 Agroforestry PRACTICE silvoarable Savanna style: vegetables and fruit trees Alley cropping: cereals and timber Agroforestry PRACTICE silvopastoral Savanna style: Orchards (fruit and sheep) Savanna style: dehesa (Oaks and pigs) also: Forest grazing Agroforestry PRACTICE windbreak and water edge Wind protection: protection against cooling and Water edge: protection against inputs from drying agriculture Agroforestry PRACTICE +1120% +350% +65% Torralba, M., Fagerholm, N., Burgess, P. J., Moreno, G., & Plieninger, T. (2016). Do European agroforestry systems enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services? A meta-analysis. Agriculture, ecosystems & environment, 230, 150-161.  Chestnut Case study Portugal Wheat 4 t/ha chestnuts 2.3 t/ha wheat (Portugal 2016) Energy content: 213 kcal/100g 7.6 t/ha wheat (Germany 2016) Energy content: 353 kcal/100g Martins, A., Marques, G., Borges, O., Portela, E., Lousada, J., Raimundo, F., & Madeira, M. (2011). Management of chestnut plantations for a multifunctional land use under Mediterranean conditions: effects on productivity and sustainability. Agroforestry systems, 81(2), 175-189. Martins, A., Raimundo, F., Borges, O., Linhares, I., Sousa, V., Coutinho, J. P.,... & Madeira, M. (2010). Effects of soil management practices and irrigation on plant water relations and productivity of chestnut stands under Mediterranean conditions. Plant and soil, 327(1-2), 57-70.  Chestnut Case study Portugal Wheat 4 t/ha chestnuts 2.3 t/ha wheat (Portugal 2016) Energy content: 213 kcal/100g 7.6 t/ha wheat (Germany 2016) Energy content: 353 kcal/100g + 2,3 t/ha DM hay + 120 kg/ha FW mushrooms + wood and honey Martins, A., Marques, G., Borges, O., Portela, E., Lousada, J., Raimundo, F., & Madeira, M. (2011). Management of chestnut plantations for a multifunctional land use under Mediterranean conditions: effects on productivity and sustainability. Agroforestry systems, 81(2), 175-189. Martins, A., Raimundo, F., Borges, O., Linhares, I., Sousa, V., Coutinho, J. P.,... & Madeira, M. (2010). Effects of soil management practices and irrigation on plant water relations and productivity of chestnut stands under Mediterranean conditions. Plant and soil, 327(1-2), 57-70.  Chestnut Case study Portugal Wheat 4 t/ha chestnuts 2.3 t/ha wheat (Portugal 2016) Energy content: 213 kcal/100g 7.6 t/ha wheat (Germany 2016) Energy content: 353 kcal/100g + 2,3 t/ha DM hay + 120 kg/ha FW mushrooms + wood and honey biodiversity, soil quality: biodiversity, soil quality: Martins, A., Marques, G., Borges, O., Portela, E., Lousada, J., Raimundo, F., & Madeira, M. (2011). Management of chestnut plantations for a multifunctional land use under Mediterranean conditions: effects on productivity and sustainability. Agroforestry systems, 81(2), 175-189. Martins, A., Raimundo, F., Borges, O., Linhares, I., Sousa, V., Coutinho, J. P.,... & Madeira, M. (2010). Effects of soil management practices and irrigation on plant water relations and productivity of chestnut stands under Mediterranean conditions. Plant and soil, 327(1-2), 57-70. Agroforestry limitations Why n ot grow chest nuts? 23  Agroforestry limitations Lack of experience and education Higher initial costs No support by political framework Why n ot grow chest nuts? 24 Agroforestry PRACTICE Torralba, M., Fagerholm, N., Burgess, P. J., Moreno, G., & Plieninger, T. (2016). Do European agroforestry systems enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services? A meta-analysis. Agriculture, ecosystems & environment, 230, 150-161.  Crop-Livestock PRACTICE Integration - Links: Boarhof, Bad Wiessee, Germany (brotzeit-leben.de) - Rechts: HelleBauer, Höxter, Germany (hellebauer.de) Crop-Livestock PRACTICE Integration Specialisation (organisationally not integrated) Separation (only organisationally integrated) Rotation (organisationally and spatially, but not temporally integrated) Synchronisation (integrated in all three dimensions). - Bell, L. W., & Moore, A. D. (2012). Integrated crop–livestock systems in Australian agriculture: Trends, drivers and implications. Agricultural Systems, 111, 1-12. - Links: Boarhof, Bad Wiessee, Germany (brotzeit-leben.de) - Rechts: HelleBauer, Höxter, Germany (hellebauer.de) Crop-Livestock PRACTICE Integration Improved risk management More diverse crop rotations Synergies – Saving on animal feed – Saving on fertilisers – Pest control – Weed control – Increased productivity - Bell, L. W., & Moore, A. D. (2012). Integrated crop–livestock systems in Australian agriculture: Trends, drivers and implications. Agricultural Systems, 111, 1-12. - Links: Boarhof, Bad Wiessee, Germany (brotzeit-leben.de) - Rechts: HelleBauer, Höxter, Germany (hellebauer.de) Market Gardening PRACTICE Torralba, M., Fagerholm, N., Burgess, P. J., Moreno, G., & Plieninger, T. (2016). Do European agroforestry systems enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services? A meta-analysis. Agriculture, ecosystems & environment, 230, 150-161. Market Gardening PRACTICE - Hintergrund: Weidevogel,Winden, Germany (https://www.facebook.com/DerWeidevogel/) Market Gardening PRACTICE Little/no tillage High input of compost Mixed crops and crop rotation Lots of manual labour Healthy ecosystem instead of industrial input - Hintergrund: Weidevogel,Winden, Germany (https://www.facebook.com/DerWeidevogel/) Market Gardening PRACTICE Casestudy: La Ferme Du Bec Hellouin One person 1000 qm (0,1 ha) 43 h/week 900 – 1600 €/month - Hintergrund: Ferme du Bec Hellouin, le Bec Hellouin, France, (fermedubec.com) - Morel, K., Guégan, C., & Léger, F. G. (2015, June). Can an organic market garden based on holistic thinking be viable without motorization? The case of a permaculture farm. In International Symposium on Innovation in Integrated and Organic Horticulture (INNOHORT) 1137 (pp. 343-346). Market Gardening PRACTICE Casestudy: La Ferme Du Bec Hellouin One person 1000 qm (0,1 ha) 43 h/week 900 – 1600 €/month Average in Germany: 19 ha/Agricultural worker - Hintergrund: Ferme du Bec Hellouin, le Bec Hellouin, France, (fermedubec.com) - Morel, K., Guégan, C., & Léger, F. G. (2015, June). Can an organic market garden based on holistic thinking be viable without motorization? The case of a permaculture farm. In International Symposium on Innovation in Integrated and Organic Horticulture (INNOHORT) 1137 (pp. 343-346). - Statistisches Bundesamt, Deutschland (destatis.de) Market Gardening PRACTICE Torralba, M., Fagerholm, N., Burgess, P. J., Moreno, G., & Plieninger, T. (2016). Do European agroforestry systems enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services? A meta-analysis. Agriculture, ecosystems & environment, 230, 150-161. Semi-natural habitats PRACTICE - Hintergrund: Ferme du Bec Hellouin, le Bec Hellouin, France, (fermedubec.com) - Holland, J. M., Douma, J. C., Crowley, L., James, L., Kor, L., Stevenson, D. R., & Smith, B. M. (2017). Semi-natural habitats support biological control, pollination and soil conservation in Europe. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 37, 1-23. Semi-natural habitats PRACTICE - Hintergrund: Ferme du Bec Hellouin, le Bec Hellouin, France, (fermedubec.com) - Holland, J. M., Douma, J. C., Crowley, L., James, L., Kor, L., Stevenson, D. R., & Smith, B. M. (2017). Semi-natural habitats support biological control, pollination and soil conservation in Europe. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 37, 1-23.  Semi-natural habitats PRACTICE 80% positiv 89% positiv 79% positiv 81% positiv - Hintergrund: Ferme du Bec Hellouin, le Bec Hellouin, France, (fermedubec.com) - Holland, J. M., Douma, J. C., Crowley, L., James, L., Kor, L., Stevenson, D. R., & Smith, B. M. (2017). Semi-natural habitats support biological control, pollination and soil conservation in Europe. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 37, 1-23. Semi-natural habitats PRACTICE Torralba, M., Fagerholm, N., Burgess, P. J., Moreno, G., & Plieninger, T. (2016). Do European agroforestry systems enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services? A meta-analysis. Agriculture, ecosystems & environment, 230, 150-161. Arthropod pest management Four phases: 1. Cultural practices: crop rotation, soil management, host plant resistance (organic farming: non-transgenic), farm/field location 2. Vegetation management for natural enemies: ecological compensation areas, undersowing, intercrops, trap crops 3. Biological control: inundative / inoculative release of biological control agents 4. Direct control: insecticides (organic farming: minerals / natural substances), pheromone traps, mating disruption Zehnder et al. 2007. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 52: 57-80. Biological control - definitions Applied Ecology „Use of living organisms as agents of pest control“ (Waage & Mills 1992 in Crawley (ed) Natural Enemies […]. Blackwell, Oxford) „Use of parasitoid, predator, pathogen, antagonist, or competitor populations to suppress a pest population, making it less abundant and thus less damaging than it would otherwise be“ (Van Driesche & Bellows 1996 Biological Control. Chapman & Hall, New York) Types of biological pest control: 1. Classical Biological Control (permanent establishment) 2. Augmentation (inoculative / inundative release) 3. Conservation Biological Control (enhancing existing beneficials) Biological control agents Parasitoids Predators Pathogens Dr Victor Fursov, CC BY-SA 4.0 creativecommons.org Jean and Fred Hort CC BY 2.0 via flickr.com Danny Newman CC BY-SA 3.0 creativecommons.org Tony Coulson, CC BY 2.0 3.0 e.g. e.g. lacewing, lady creativecommons.org Trichogramma beetle e.g. Beauveria, Steinernema feltiae Classical Biological control  for pests outside their natural distribution range  introduction of enemies from the pest‘s native range If successful: permanent control with no further action Requirements: - effectivity (often hard to predict) - host/prey specificity (risk of non-target effects) System: Citrus – cottony cushion scale - lady beetle 1868: Cottony cushion scale Icerya purchasi (from Australia/NZ) discovered in California 1886: Citrus no longer profitable 1888-1889: Successful control through introduction of the lady beetle Rodolia cardinalis from Australia wikipedia.org agroldea.es System: Rangeland – Opuntia – cactus moth 1926: Prickly pear cactus Opuntia; native to Central America) covers 250000 km2 of wood and rangeland in Australia 1929: Successful control through introduction of cactus moth Cactoblastis cactorum from Argentine britannica.com britannica.com Risk for native species 1968: Release of the weevil Rhinocyllus conicus (from France, Italy) to control invasive thistles Carduus sp. (from Europe) in the USA since 1992: Increasing damage to native thistles – destruction of up to 77% of flowerheads invasive in the USA: Cirsium arvense pflanzenbestimmung.info Louda et al. 1997 Science 277:1088-1090. Augmentation Applied Ecology  Release of reared enemies  Necessary if enemies provide no permanent control (low number, appear late; often in native range of pests, e.g. due to hyperparasitoids) Inoculative: Multiple releases of small numbers of enemy with subsequent mass reproduction in the field / greenhouse Inundative: Single release of large numbers of enemies to provide short-term control; natural enemy does not become established System: maize – cornborer - Trichogramma European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis main pest of maize across the world. Parasitic wasp Trichogramma brassicae develops in the eggs. Field populations usually not sufficient for control. Mass rearing and release (e.g. by drones) Keith Weller - This image was released by the Agricultural Research Service, the research agency of Dr Victor Fursov, CC BY-SA 4.0 creativecommons.org the United States Department of Agriculture, with the ID k7834-3 (next)., Public Domain, commons.wikimedia.org Conservation Biological Control Applied Ecology Enhancing efficiency and/or abundance of native enemies through cultivation measures - Undersowing - Intercrops - ecological compensation areas - reduced pesticides - local or landscape scale Biocontrol - flowering habitats  aphid predators and crop pollinators mostly use wild plants, especially trees Bertrand et al. (2019) J Appl Ecol 56:2431–2442. Biocontrol - flowering habitats  Cereal leaf beetle infestation reduced below economic threshold by flower strips  Economically viable under current Swiss conditions  Similar effects in potato (Tschumi et al 2016a)  10% higher yield in wheat besides perennial wildflower areas (Tschumi et al 2016b) Tschumi et al 2015, 2016a,b Landscape diversification A) Landscape composition: cover of (semi-)natural habitats arable-dominated landscape heterogeneous landscape r = 1.5 km  7% semi-natural habitats  50% semi-natural habitats B) Habitat connectivity: proximity to (semi-)natural habitats kilometres 0 1 2 3 Pollination landscape + + crop + pollinator The QuESSA project is funded by the European Commission through the Seventh Framework Programme Pumpkin pollination landscape ? + + crop pollinator + Who is pollinating?  bumblebees determine pollination!  no relationship! (p = 0.0007) Pollen per flower Pollen per flower 4 16 36 64 Honey bees Bumblebees  More honeybee visits, but bumblebees are more important Pfister et al. 2018 How can pollination be enhanced? 100 Bumblebee visits 16000 Pollen / flower 12000 10 8000 1 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.8 % Crop % Crop Fewer bumblebees and less pollen in crop-dominated landscapes. Possible reasons: Pesticides? Nesting habitat? Flower availability? Pfister et al. 2018 Pollination: Synthesis Garibaldi et al. 2013 Science 339: 1608-1611 Crop pollination Crops depending on insect pollination: wikipedia.org - Fruits (apple, cherry, kiwi…) - Berries - Vegetables (pumpkin, cucumber, tomatoes…) - Oilseed rape - Coffee fielder-nutrition.co.uk - Cocoa - Alfalfa Together: 35% of crops worldwide wildflowersofontario.ca 57 sciencedaily.com kaffee.bilderu.de giardinaggion.it onequalitythefinest.com Pollination: Synthesis Meta-analysis of 23 studies from 16 crops on 5 continents Distance from natural habitat reduces bee richness and density: Species richness Flower visitation *** *** 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 Distance (km) Distance (km) n.s. Kilometer 0 1 2 3 Ricketts et al. 2008 Huffpost Kevin Frayer/Getty Images 59  Example 1: Holistic Grazing 60 https://youtu.be/vpTHi7O66pI  Example 1: Holistic Grazing Natural ecosystems as patterns for landuse systems 61 Example 1: Holistic Grazing 62 Example 1: Holistic Grazing 63 Example 1: Holistic Grazing 64 Example 1: Holistic Grazing 65 Scientific results 66  Scientific results Dichotomy – Scientific experiments: few effects – Case studies: strong effects Scientific experiment problems: – Short duration – Small area – No adaptive management 67 Teague, R., Provenza, F., Kreuter, U., Steffens, T., & Barnes, M. (2013). Multi-paddock grazing on rangelands: why the perceptual dichotomy between research results and rancher experience?. Journal of Environmental management, 128, 699-717.  Case study: Mexico conventional (18) holistic management (7) Stocking rate 1.9 animals/ha 3.2 animals/ha Ferguson, B. G., Diemont, S. A., Alfaro-Arguello, R., Martin, J. F., Nahed-Toral, J., Á lvarez-Solís, D., & Pinto-Ruíz, R. (2013). Sustainability of holistic and 68 conventional cattle ranching in the seasonally dry tropics of Chiapas, Mexico. Agricultural systems, 120, 38-48.<  Case study: Mexico conventional (18) holistic management (7) Stocking rate 1.9 animals/ha 3.2 animals/ha Open soil 8.8% 0.1% Ferguson, B. G., Diemont, S. A., Alfaro-Arguello, R., Martin, J. F., Nahed-Toral, J., Á lvarez-Solís, D., & Pinto-Ruíz, R. (2013). Sustainability of holistic and 69 conventional cattle ranching in the seasonally dry tropics of Chiapas, Mexico. Agricultural systems, 120, 38-48.<  Case study: Mexico conventional (18) holistic management (7) Stocking rate 1.9 animals/ha 3.2 animals/ha Open soil 8.8% 0.1% Plant biomass 24.9 kg/ha 36.3 kg/ha Ferguson, B. G., Diemont, S. A., Alfaro-Arguello, R., Martin, J. F., Nahed-Toral, J., Á lvarez-Solís, D., & Pinto-Ruíz, R. (2013). Sustainability of holistic and 70 conventional cattle ranching in the seasonally dry tropics of Chiapas, Mexico. Agricultural systems, 120, 38-48.<  Case study: Mexico conventional (18) holistic management (7) Stocking rate 1.9 animals/ha 3.2 animals/ha Open soil 8.8% 0.1% Plant biomass 24.9 kg/ha 36.3 kg/ha Humic soil depth 18.6 cm 28.8 cm Ferguson, B. G., Diemont, S. A., Alfaro-Arguello, R., Martin, J. F., Nahed-Toral, J., Á lvarez-Solís, D., & Pinto-Ruíz, R. (2013). Sustainability of holistic and 71 conventional cattle ranching in the seasonally dry tropics of Chiapas, Mexico. Agricultural systems, 120, 38-48.<  Case study: Mexico conventional (18) holistic management (7) Stocking rate 1.9 animals/ha 3.2 animals/ha Open soil 8.8% 0.1% Plant biomass 24.9 kg/ha 36.3 kg/ha Humic soil depth 18.6 cm 28.8 cm mortality 4.9 %/y 1.1 %/y Ferguson, B. G., Diemont, S. A., Alfaro-Arguello, R., Martin, J. F., Nahed-Toral, J., Á lvarez-Solís, D., & Pinto-Ruíz, R. (2013). Sustainability of holistic and 72 conventional cattle ranching in the seasonally dry tropics of Chiapas, Mexico. Agricultural systems, 120, 38-48.<  Cattle and carbon FL: feedlot AMP: adaptive multi paddock 73 Stanley, P. L., Rowntree, J. E., Beede, D. K., DeLonge, M. S., & Hamm, M. W. (2018). Impacts of soil carbon sequestration on life cycle greenhouse gas emissions in Midwestern USA beef finishing systems. Agricultural systems, 162, 249-258.  Cattle and carbon FL: feedlot AMP: adaptive multi paddock 74 Stanley, P. L., Rowntree, J. E., Beede, D. K., DeLonge, M. S., & Hamm, M. W. (2018). Impacts of soil carbon sequestration on life cycle greenhouse gas emissions in Midwestern USA beef finishing systems. Agricultural systems, 162, 249-258.  Cattle and carbon FL: feedlot AMP: adaptive multi paddock 75 Stanley, P. L., Rowntree, J. E., Beede, D. K., DeLonge, M. S., & Hamm, M. W. (2018). Impacts of soil carbon sequestration on life cycle greenhouse gas emissions in Midwestern USA beef finishing systems. Agricultural systems, 162, 249-258. Market Gardening PRACTICE Torralba, M., Fagerholm, N., Burgess, P. J., Moreno, G., & Plieninger, T. (2016). Do European agroforestry systems enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services? A meta-analysis. Agriculture, ecosystems & environment, 230, 150-161. Sampling METHODS One plot per land-use type + control field: 1x determination of vascular plants (10x10m) 3x earthworm sampling (30x30x20cm) 3x 2 soil samples (0-10cm, 10-30cm) 3x 2 cylinder samples 3x measurement of humus topsoil thickness Once per location + control field: Audio recording of bird calls (2x 10 min dawn, 1x 10 min dusk) - Hintergrund: Boarhof, Bad Wiessee, Germany (brotzeit-leben.de) Summary RESULTS Healthy ecosystem instead of industrial input Percentage change of various indicators of soil carbon, soil quality, biodiversity and yield for permaculture. Indicators of soil carbon, soil quality and biodiversity were assessed on nine permaculture plots compared to paired control fields of locally predominant agriculture. Crop productivity was assessed using the Land Equivalent Ratio of eleven permaculture plots as compared to total and organic German agriculture. Four permaculture plots were part of both assessments. Levels of significance are displayed as different bar colour in shades of grey.