Introduction to Unmanned Aircraft Flight (AE 575) PDF

AE 575 Introduction to Unmanned Aircraft Flight Dr. Syed Saad Azhar Ali 75-110 [email protected] With KFUPM (twice) 2000-2007 and now since 2022, associated with AE Department as academician, and IRC for Smart Mobility and Logistics IRC for Aviation and Sp...

AE 575 Introduction to Unmanned Aircraft Flight Dr. Syed Saad Azhar Ali 75-110 [email protected] With KFUPM (twice) 2000-2007 and now since 2022, associated with AE Department as academician, and IRC for Smart Mobility and Logistics IRC for Aviation and Space Exploration Actively engaged in research in academics with ABOUT ME strong network and collaboration. Research Interests Computer Vision Underwater Robotics and Imaging Signal and Image Processing Machine Learning and Optimization Teaching Interests Control Systems Instrumentation and Measurements Signal Processing AI and ML  1995-1999 EDUCATION Electrical Engineering NED University of Engg & Tech 2002-2007 Karachi, Pakistan Electrical Engineering King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, KSA BE MSc PhD 2000-2001 Electrical Engineering King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, KSA  2007-2009 Assistant Professor Deputy Head, Electrical Engg. Dept. EXPERIENCE 01 Air University, Pak 2009-2014 Associate Professor Chair, Electronics Engg. Dept. Iqra University, Pak 02 2014 to 2022 Assoc Professor Program Leader, 03 Electrical & Electronic Engg. Dept. Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, MY 2022 to date Assoc Professor Aerospace Engg. Dept. King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals KSA 04 01 Professional Association Professional Senior Member IEEE (USA) Professional Engineer Pakistan Engineering Council (PEC) PEC is a full signatory of Washington Accord Graduate Engineer Board of Engineers Malaysia Professional Technologist Malaysia Board of Technologists (MBOT) Join the whatsapp group  Fundamentals of Unmanned Aerial Systems AE 575 This course presents students with the fundamentals of unmanned aerial systems. Coverage includes UAVs components, configurations, classifications, communication frameworks, fundamentals of flight, regulations, safety, and future challenges. Also, the course covers performance, mathematical modeling and system dynamics of UAVs, and common control techniques to improve the system’s stability and performance with more emphasis on multirotor UAVs. Students shall apply basic knowledge to a real system, i.e. drones. Course Objectives Develop an overall understanding of UAVs history, classification, applications, and challenges. Develop an overall understanding of UAVs components, subsystems and concept of flight. Provide students with the fundamental knowledge about modelling and control of dynamic systems. Develop an overall understanding of UAVs operational safety and national and international regulations compliance. Course Outcome The student shall be able to : Explain concepts of UAVs platform stability and performance. Model and apply classic and modern control techniques on the dynamic systems. Effectively apply programming and computational software as a tool for understanding real system platform. Function well in team projects. Give a professional presentation with excellent communication skills and well organized written design project report.  Grading Policy Attendance and participation 5% Homework 10 % Quiz 15% Term Project 20 % MidTerm Exam 25 % Final exam 25% Project You will be engaged in hands on project where you will do everything from scratch Study, analyze, acquire, assemble, configure and FLY the drone What is UAS?  CHAPTER 1 DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 13  Transportatio n, Launch and Recovery UNMANNED AERIAL SYSTEMS AE-575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 14  TIMELINE AE-575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 15  MODERN UNMANNED VEHICLE TIMELINE 1960-80’s - Remote Piloted Vehicle (RPV) Pilot in the loop, had near-real time control of aircraft and flight surfaces 1990’s - Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) Pilot on the loop, beginning of automation, pilot can take over if necessary Beginning in 2005 - Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) Most flight profiles pre-programmed, pilot can modify or take over in emergencies AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 16  BACKGROUND Compared to manned aircraft, UAVs : smaller, have a reduced radar signature, increased range, and increased endurance. Advantages of not having pilot : more maneuverable, avoid the equipment and systems usually needed to support a human pilot, and Pair yourself with your neighbour. stays away from the politically unattractive risk of putting humans in dangerous situations. Analyze the UAVs in terms of They have proven their worth in intelligence, surveillance, and advantages/disadvantages or any reconnaissance missions, but have shown a large potential for offensive other missions, where the pilot’s taskload is veryfactor. high. (5-7 minutes) The percentage of involvement of human factors issues varied across aircraft from 21% to 68%. Ex: 75% of recent Predator accidents were caused AEby the interaction between the human controller and the UAV. 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 17  ANALYZE Advantages No Pilot So… Accidents / Errors Compared to manned aircraft, UAVs Advantages of not having are - pilot The percentage of Smaller involvement of human Reduced radar signature, Pull higher G-loads - more factors issues varied Increased range, maneuverable, across aircraft from 21% to Increased endurance. 68%. No need for equipment Proven their worth in : and systems to support a Ex: 75% of recent Predator Intelligence, human pilot – much lighter, accidents were caused by Surveillance, and more performance the interaction between the Reconnaissance, human controller and the Stay away from the UAV. Also large potential for offensive politically unattractive risk missions, where the pilot’s of putting humans in taskload is very high. dangerous situations. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 18  ADVANTAGES OF HUMAN PILOTS Human operators are adaptable and flexible to goals and means to achieve them use problem solving and creativity to cope with unusual and unforeseen situations exercise judgment Humans are unsurpassed in recognizing patterns operating in ill-structured, ambiguous situations Human error is the inevitable side effect of this flexibility and adaptability AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 19  NO-PILOT ONBOARD “No Pilot on board” implies: Situation awareness only based on data acquired by sensors, downloaded and analyzed by the ground operator Latency exist due to the data transfer between the Air Vehicle and the ground station (up and down) New failure configurations: Loss of Data Link: a sufficient level of autonomy is necessary Sensor Failure may be critical The «Sense And Avoid» function replaces the «Detect And Avoid» or «See And Avoid» in all situations AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 20  TERMINOLOGIES Common Terms Drone – Unmanned robotic probe or target RPA – Remotely Piloted Aircraft UAV – Unmanned Aerial Vehicle or A/C UAS – Unmanned Aircraft System SoS – System of Systems https://www.droneacademy-asia.com/post/what-is-the-difference-between-a-drone-a-uav- and-a-uas AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 21  TERMINOLOGIES Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) or DRONE DEFINITION: A reusable aircraft designed to operate without an onboard pilot. It does not carry passengers and can be either remotely piloted or preprogrammed to fly autonomously. Remotely Piloted Vehicle DEFINITION: An unmanned vehicle capable of being controlled from a distant location through a communication link. It is normally designed to be recoverable. Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) DEFINITION: An Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) comprises individual system elements consisting of an “unmanned aircraft”, the “control station” and any other system elements necessary to enable flight, i.e. “command and control link” and “launch and recovery elements”. There may be multiple control stations, command & AEcontrol links and launch and recovery elements within aCH1UAS. 575 22 - Definitions and Classifications  TERMINOLOGIES UAS – Functional Structure AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 23  TERMINOLOGIES The UAV – the cherry of the cake The type and performance of the air vehicle/aircraft is principally determined by the needs of the operational mission. The task of the aircraft is primarily to carry the mission payload to its point of application, but it also has to carry the subsystems necessary for it to operate. These sub-systems include the communications link, stabilization and control equipment, power plant and fuel, electrical power supplies; and basic airframe structure and mechanisms needed for the aircraft to be launched, to carry out its mission, and to be recovered. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 24  TERMINOLOGIES Communications For Communication between the UAV and the CS, the transmission medium is most usually radio frequency 20 kHz to around 300 GHz. Possible alternatives may be optical communiation (laser beam). The tasks of the data links are usually as follows: Uplink (i.e. from the CS to the aircraft): Transmit flight path tasking which is then stored in the aircraft automatic flight control system (AFCS). Transmit real-time flight control commands to the AFCS when man-in-the-loop flight is needed. Transmit control commands to the aircraft-mounted payloads and ancillaries. Transmit updated positional information to the aircraft INS/AFCS where relevant. Downlink (i.e. from the aircraft to the CS): Transmit aircraft positional data to the CS where relevant. Transmit payload imagery and/or data to the CS. Transmit aircraft housekeeping data, e.g. fuel state, engine temperature, etc. to the CS. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 25  TERMINOLOGIES Control Station DEFINITION: Usually based on the ground (Ground Control Station - GCS), OR aboard ship (Sea-based Control Station - SCS), OR possibly airborne in a ‘parent’ aircraft (Airborne Control Station - ACS). The control station is the control centre of the operation and the man–machine interface. It is also usually, but not always, the centre in which the UAV mission is pre-planned, in which case it may be known as the mission planning and control station (MPCS). Less usually, the mission may be planned from a central command centre and the mission data is sent to the CS for its execution. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 26  TERMINOLOGIES Payload DEFINITION: Payloads are additional sensors, devices or armaments that can be carried by an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). The type and performance of the payloads is driven by the needs of the operational task. These can range from (examples): relatively simple sub-systems consisting of an unstabilised video camera with a fixed lens having mass as little as 200 g, through a video system with a greater range capability, employing a longer focal length lens with zoo facility, gyro-stabilised and with pan and tilt function with a mass of probably 3–4 kg, to a high-power radar having a mass, with its power supplies, of possibly up to 1000 kg. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 27  TERMINOLOGIES Navigation Systems These allow operators and the aircraft to know, on demand, where the aircraft is at any moment in time. For fully autonomous operation, i.e. without any communication between the CS and the air vehicle, sufficient navigation equipment must be carried in the aircraft. Usually, a combination of inertial navigation systems (INS) and Global Positioning System (GPS) are used as onboard AE 575 navigation systems. CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 28  TERMINOLOGIES Waypoint Navigation DEFINITION: Waypoints are sets of coordinates that identify a point in physical space. These coordinates can include longitude, latitude, and altitude. A waypoint is a predetermined geographical position that is defined in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates (altitude optional). AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 29  TERMINOLOGIES Launch, Recovery and Retrieval Equipment Launch equipment: This will be required for those air vehicles which do not have a vertical flight capability, nor have access to a runway of suitable surface and length. Recovery equipment: This also will usually be required for aircraft without a vertical flight capability, unless they can be brought down onto terrain which will allow a wheeled or skid-borne run-on landing. It usually takes the form of a parachute, installed within the aircraft, and which is deployed at a suitable altitude over the landing zone. Retrieval equipment: Unless the aircraft is lightweight enough to be man-portable, a means is required of transporting the aircraft back to its launcher AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 30  TERMINOLOGIES Support Material and Equipment Support equipment is one area which can often be underestimated when a UAV system is specified. It ranges from operating and maintenance manuals, through tools and spares to special test equipment and power supplies. Transportation A means of transport must be needed for all the sub-systems discussed. For a UAV system e.g. for vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft which needs no launch, recovery or retrieval equipment may require one vehicle to contain and transport. Operated by two crew members For large and heavier ramp-launched aircraft which needs all the sub-systems listed, may have to be dismantled and reassembled between flights, and may require, say, ten crew and six large transport vehicles. Even UAV systems operating from fixed bases may have specific transport requirements AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 31  INTERFACE The UAV may require tasking from a source external to the system and report back to that or other external source. A typical example is military surveillance where the UAV system may be operating at brigade level, but receive a task directly, or indirectly from corps level to survey a specific area for specific information and to report back to corps and/or other users through a military information network. This network may include information coming from and/or being required by other elements of the military, such as ground-, sea-, or air-based units and space-satellites, or indeed, other UAV systems. This may include interfacing with civilians as well. CH1 - Definitions and Classifications AE-575 32  TERMINOLOGIES Real-world example of Interconnected UAV in a Centralized Network with multiple types of vehicles, stations and sensors AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 33  VARIATIONS OF TERMINOLOGIES, WHY? User ✓ Military ✓ Civil Requirements and Concepts Regulatory/legal importance AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 34  UAV FAMILY TREE AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 35  REGULATORY AUTHORITIES UAS European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Aircraft Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Airworthiness Saudi GACA Systems ground control stations communication links launch and retrieval AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 36  DEFINITIONS Mean Sea Level AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 37  DEFINITIONS Above Ground Level (AGL) is a height measured with respect to the underlying ground surface. Mean sea level (MSL) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth's oceans from which heights such as elevation may be measured. MSL is a type of vertical datum/reference – a standardized geodetic datum – that is used, for example, in aviation, as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured to calibrate altitude and, consequently, aircraft flight levels. A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location. Flight Level (FL) is defined as a level of constant atmospheric pressure related to a reference datum of 29.92 inches of mercury. Each flight level is stated using three digits that represent hundreds of feet. For example, FL 250 represents a barometric altimeter indication of 25,000 feet. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 38  DEFINITIONS Airspace Portion of the atmosphere controlled by a country above its territory, including its territorial waters or, more generally, any specific three-dimensional portion of the atmosphere. It is not the same as aerospace, which is the general term for Earth's atmosphere and the outer space in its vicinity. Controlled airspace: exists where it is deemed necessary that Air Traffic Control (ATC) has some form of positive executive control over aircraft flying in that airspace (however, air traffic control does not necessarily control traffic operating under visual flight rules (VFR) within this airspace). Controlled airspace consists of: Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, Class E. Uncontrolled airspace: is airspace where an Air Traffic Control (ATC) service is not deemed necessary or cannot be provided for practical reasons. According to the airspace classes set by ICAO, both class F and class G airspace are uncontrolled. It is the opposite of controlled airspace where ATC has no authority or responsibility to control air traffic. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 39  DEFINITIONS AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 40  TYPES AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 41  TYPES AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 42  TYPES https://www.droidmen.com/single-rotor-drone-things-to- know/ AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 43  TYPES AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 44  METRICS FOR CLASSIFICATION Metrics for Classification Classification Basis Maximum Takeoff Weight (MTOW) Comprehensive (General) Classification Or MGTOW Maximum gross takeoff Based on MTOW and Ground Impact Risk weight Based on Operational Altitude and Midair Size Collision Risk Operating Conditions Based on Autonomy Capabilities Based on Military Other Characteristics Based on mission Type Any Combination AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 45  EXAMPLES AE-575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 46  COMPREHENSIVE (GENERAL) CLASSIFICATION Comprehensive (General) Classification This classification: – One of the detailed and widely used classification. – Is based on the mass, range, altitude, and endurance. – Demonstrating both the wide variety of UAV systems and capabilities as well as the multiple dimensions of differentiation. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 47  UAV AIRSPACE AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 48  UAV AIRSPACE AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 49  C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M TO W A N D G R O U N D I M PA C T R I S K Classification Based on MTOW and Ground Impact Risk (USED BY GACA) Regulation purposes → affect safety of operations. Classify based on the risk they present to people and property after a ground impact MTOW correlates the expected Kinetic Energy (KE) imparted at impact. Classification Based on MTOW and Ground Impact Risk Presented in Table 5.2. – Maintain an expected number of fatalities, < 10−7 h −1. Classification Based directly on KE Presented in Table 5.3. Classification Based on MTOW Presented in Table 5.4. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 50 C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M TO W A N D G R O U N D I M PA C T R I S K AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 51 C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M TO W A N D G R O U N D I M PA C T R I S K AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 52 C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M TO W A N D G R O U N D I M PA C T R I S K AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 53  C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M I S S I O N T Y P E ▪ Target and decoy ▪ Reconnaissance ▪ Combat ▪ Logistics ▪ Research and development ▪ Civil and Commercial AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 54  C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M I S S I O N T Y P E ▪ Target and decoy: provide ground and aerial gunnery at a target that simulates an enemy aircraft or missile. DRDO ABHYAS undergoing flight tests, 13 May 2019 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DRDO_Abhyas) AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 55  C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M I S S I O N T Y P E ▪ Reconnaissance: provide intelligence on the battlefield. An RQ-4 Global Hawk flying in 2007 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_RQ-4_Global_Hawk) AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 56  C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M I S S I O N T Y P E ▪ Combat: provide attack capability for some high-risk missions. nEUROn at Paris Air Show 2013 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dassault_nEUROn) AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 57  C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M I S S I O N T Y P E ▪ Logistics: designed for cargo and logistics operation. Making up to 7 autonomous flights a day, the Parcelcopter 4.0 drone was able to cover the 60-km distance in an average of 40 minutes cruising at 130 km/h (https://newatlas.com/dhl-parcelcopter-africa/56663/) AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 58  C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M I S S I O N T Y P E ▪ Research and development: used to further develop UAV technologies to be integrated into field deployed UAV aircraft. Sky-Y at Paris Air Show 2007 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alenia_Aermacchi_Sky-Y) AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 59  C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M I S S I O N T Y P E ▪ Civil and Commercial: designed for civil and commercial applications. Drones are capable of spraying crops with far more precision than a traditional tractor (https://www.businessinsider.com/agricultural-drones-precision-mapping-spraying) AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 60  SIX ARGUMENTS IN FAVOR OF THE COM MERCIAL USE OF DRONES 1) Drones can revolutionize so many industries, especially agriculture 2) Using drones saves money 3) Drones are more energy efficient 4) The drone industry will create jobs 5) States are passing laws to protect privacy rights 6) The private sector will also find solutions to privacy concerns AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 61  Chapter 1 READING in ASSIGNMENTS Textbook AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 62  TERMINOLOGIES Common Terms Drone – Unmanned robotic probe or target RPA – Remotely Piloted Aircraft UAV – Unmanned Aerial Vehicle or A/C UAS – Unmanned Aircraft System SoS – System of Systems https://www.droneacademy-asia.com/post/what-is-the-difference-between-a-drone-a-uav- and-a-uas AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 63  TERMINOLOGIES Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) or DRONE DEFINITION: A reusable aircraft designed to operate without an onboard pilot. It does not carry passengers and can be either remotely piloted or preprogrammed to fly autonomously. Remotely Piloted Vehicle DEFINITION: An unmanned vehicle capable of being controlled from a distant location through a communication link. It is normally designed to be recoverable. Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) DEFINITION: An Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) comprises individual system elements consisting of an “unmanned aircraft”, the “control station” and any other system elements necessary to enable flight, i.e. “command and control link” and “launch and recovery elements”. There may be multiple control stations, command & AEcontrol links and launch and recovery elements within aCH1UAS. 575 64 - Definitions and Classifications  TERMINOLOGIES UAS – Functional Structure AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 65  TERMINOLOGIES The UAV – the cherry of the cake The type and performance of the air vehicle/aircraft is principally determined by the needs of the operational mission. The task of the aircraft is primarily to carry the mission payload to its point of application, but it also has to carry the subsystems necessary for it to operate. These sub-systems include the communications link, stabilization and control equipment, power plant and fuel, electrical power supplies; and basic airframe structure and mechanisms needed for the aircraft to be launched, to carry out its mission, and to be recovered. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 66  TERMINOLOGIES Communications For Communication between the UAV and the CS, the transmission medium is most usually radio frequency 20 kHz to around 300 GHz. Possible alternatives may be optical communiation (laser beam). The tasks of the data links are usually as follows: Uplink (i.e. from the CS to the aircraft): Transmit flight path tasking which is then stored in the aircraft automatic flight control system (AFCS). Transmit real-time flight control commands to the AFCS when man-in-the-loop flight is needed. Transmit control commands to the aircraft-mounted payloads and ancillaries. Transmit updated positional information to the aircraft INS/AFCS where relevant. Downlink (i.e. from the aircraft to the CS): Transmit aircraft positional data to the CS where relevant. Transmit payload imagery and/or data to the CS. Transmit aircraft housekeeping data, e.g. fuel state, engine temperature, etc. to the CS. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 67  TERMINOLOGIES Control Station DEFINITION: Usually based on the ground (Ground Control Station - GCS), OR aboard ship (Sea-based Control Station - SCS), OR possibly airborne in a ‘parent’ aircraft (Airborne Control Station - ACS). The control station is the control centre of the operation and the man–machine interface. It is also usually, but not always, the centre in which the UAV mission is pre-planned, in which case it may be known as the mission planning and control station (MPCS). Less usually, the mission may be planned from a central command centre and the mission data is sent to the CS for its execution. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 68  TERMINOLOGIES Payload DEFINITION: Payloads are additional sensors, devices or armaments that can be carried by an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). The type and performance of the payloads is driven by the needs of the operational task. These can range from (examples): relatively simple sub-systems consisting of an unstabilised video camera with a fixed lens having mass as little as 200 g, through a video system with a greater range capability, employing a longer focal length lens with zoom facility, gyro-stabilised and with pan and tilt function with a mass of probably 3–4 kg, to a high-power radar having a mass, with its power supplies, of possibly up to 1000 kg. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 69  TERMINOLOGIES Navigation Systems These allow operators and the aircraft to know, on demand, where the aircraft is at any moment in time. For fully autonomous operation, i.e. without any communication between the CS and the air vehicle, sufficient navigation equipment must be carried in the aircraft. Usually, a combination of inertial navigation systems (INS) and Global Positioning System (GPS) are used as onboard AE 575 navigation systems. CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 70  TERMINOLOGIES Waypoint Navigation DEFINITION: Waypoints are sets of coordinates that identify a point in physical space. These coordinates can include longitude, latitude, and altitude. A waypoint is a predetermined geographical position that is defined in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates (altitude optional). AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 71  TERMINOLOGIES Launch, Recovery and Retrieval Equipment Launch equipment: This will be required for those air vehicles which do not have a vertical flight capability, nor have access to a runway of suitable surface and length. Recovery equipment: This also will usually be required for aircraft without a vertical flight capability, unless they can be brought down onto terrain which will allow a wheeled or skid-borne run-on landing. It usually takes the form of a parachute, installed within the aircraft, and which is deployed at a suitable altitude over the landing zone. Retrieval equipment: Unless the aircraft is lightweight enough to be man-portable, a means is required of transporting the aircraft back to its launcher AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 72  TERMINOLOGIES Support Equipment Support equipment is one area which can often be underestimated when a UAV system is specified. It ranges from operating and maintenance manuals, through tools and spares to special test equipment and power supplies. Transportation A means of transport must be provided for all the sub-systems discussed above. This may vary from one vehicle required to contain and transport a UAV system using a small, lightweight vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft which needs no launch, recovery or retrieval equipment and is operated by say, two crew, to a system using a large and heavier ramp-launched aircraft which needs all the sub-systems listed, may have to be dismantled and reassembled between flights, and may require, say, ten crew and six large transport vehicles. Even UAV systems operating from fixed bases may have specific transport requirements AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 73  TERMINOLOGIES Interfaces The UAV may require tasking from a source external to the system and report back to that or other external source. A typical example is military surveillance where the UAV system may be operating at brigade level, but receive a task directly, or indirectly from corps level to survey a specific area for specific information and to report back to corps and/or other users through a military information network. This network may include information coming from and/or being required by other elements of the military, such as ground-, sea-, or air-based units and space- satellites, or indeed, other UAV systems AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 74  INTERFACE The UAV may require tasking from a source external to the system and report back to that or other external source. A typical example is military surveillance where the UAV system may be operating at brigade level, but receive a task directly, or indirectly from corps level to survey a specific area for specific information and to report back to corps and/or other users through a military information network. This network may include information coming from and/or being required by other elements of the military, such as ground-, sea-, or air-based units and space-satellites, or indeed, other UAV systems. This may include interfacing with civilians as well. AE-449 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 75  TERMINOLOGIES Real-world example of Interconnected UAV in a Centralized Network with multiple types of vehicles, stations and sensors AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 76  VARIATIONS OF TERMINOLOGIES, WHY? User ✓ Military ✓ Civil Requirements and Concepts Regulatory/legal importance AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 77  UAV FAMILY TREE AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 78  UAV OR UAS UAS Saudi Federal GACA Aviation Administration (FAA) Aircraft European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Airworthiness Systems ground control stations communication links Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) launch and retrieval AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 79  DEFINITIONS AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 80  DEFINITIONS Above Ground Level (AGL) is a height measured with respect to the underlying ground surface. Mean sea level (MSL) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth's oceans from which heights such as elevation may be measured. MSL is a type of vertical datum – a standardized geodetic datum – that is used, for example, in aviation, as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured to calibrate altitude and, consequently, aircraft flight levels. A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location. Flight Level (FL) is defined as a level of constant atmospheric pressure related to a reference datum of 29.92 inches of mercury. Each flight level is stated using three digits that represent hundreds of feet. For example, FL 250 represents a barometric altimeter indication of 25,000 feet. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 81  DEFINITIONS Airspace is the portion of the atmosphere controlled by a country above its territory, including its territorial waters or, more generally, any specific three-dimensional portion of the atmosphere. It is not the same as aerospace, which is the general term for Earth's atmosphere and the outer space in its vicinity. Controlled airspace: exists where it is deemed necessary that Air Traffic Control (ATC) has some form of positive executive control over aircraft flying in that airspace (however, air traffic control does not necessarily control traffic operating under visual flight rules (VFR) within this airspace). Controlled airspace consists of: Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, Class E. Uncontrolled airspace: is airspace where an Air Traffic Control (ATC) service is not deemed necessary or cannot be provided for practical reasons. According to the airspace classes set by ICAO, both class F and class G airspace are uncontrolled. It is the opposite of controlled airspace where ATC has no authority or responsibility to control air traffic. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 82  DEFINITIONS AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 83  TYPES AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 84  TYPES AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 85  TYPES AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 86  TYPES AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 87  METRICS FOR CLASSIFICATION Classification Basis Metrics for Classification Comprehensive (General) Classification Maximum Takeoff Weight (MTOW) Based on MTOW and Ground Impact Risk Size Based on Operational Altitude and Midair Operating Conditions Collision Risk Capabilities Based on Autonomy Other Characteristics Based on Military Any Combination Based on mission Type AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 88  COMPREHENSIVE (GENERAL) CLASSIFICATION Comprehensive (General) Classification This classification: – One of the detailed and widely used classification. – Is based on the mass, range, altitude, and endurance. – Demonstrating both the wide variety of UAV systems and capabilities as well as the multiple dimensions of differentiation. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 89  UAV AIRSPACE AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 90  UAV AIRSPACE AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 91  C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M TO W A N D G R O U N D I M PA C T R I S K Classification Based on MTOW and Ground Impact Risk (USED BY GACA) Regulation purposes → affect safety of operations. Classify based on the risk they present to people and property after a ground impact MTOW correlates the expected Kinetic Energy (KE) imparted at impact. Classification Based on MTOW and Ground Impact Risk Presented in Table 5.2. – Maintain an expected number of fatalities, < 10−7 h −1. Classification Based directly on KE Presented in Table 5.3. Classification Based on MTOW Presented in Table 5.4. AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 92 C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M TO W A N D G R O U N D I M PA C T R I S K AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 93 C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M TO W A N D G R O U N D I M PA C T R I S K AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 94 C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M TO W A N D G R O U N D I M PA C T R I S K AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 95  C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M I S S I O N T Y P E ▪ Target and decoy ▪ Reconnaissance ▪ Combat ▪ Logistics ▪ Research and development ▪ Civil and Commercial AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 96  C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M I S S I O N T Y P E ▪ Target and decoy: provide ground and aerial gunnery at a target that simulates an enemy aircraft or missile. DRDO ABHYAS undergoing flight tests, 13 May 2019 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DRDO_Abhyas) AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 97  C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M I S S I O N T Y P E ▪ Reconnaissance: provide intelligence on the battlefield. An RQ-4 Global Hawk flying in 2007 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_RQ-4_Global_Hawk) AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 98  C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M I S S I O N T Y P E ▪ Combat: provide attack capability for some high-risk missions. nEUROn at Paris Air Show 2013 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dassault_nEUROn) AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 99  C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M I S S I O N T Y P E ▪ Logistics: designed for cargo and logistics operation. Making up to 7 autonomous flights a day, the Parcelcopter 4.0 drone was able to cover the 60-km distance in an average of 40 minutes cruising at 130 km/h (https://newatlas.com/dhl-parcelcopter-africa/56663/) AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 100  C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M I S S I O N T Y P E ▪ Research and development: used to further develop UAV technologies to be integrated into field deployed UAV aircraft. Sky-Y at Paris Air Show 2007 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alenia_Aermacchi_Sky-Y) AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 101  C L A S S I F I C AT I O N B A S E D O N M I S S I O N T Y P E ▪ Civil and Commercial: designed for civil and commercial applications. Drones are capable of spraying crops with far more precision than a traditional tractor (https://www.businessinsider.com/agricultural-drones-precision-mapping-spraying) AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 102  SIX ARGUMENTS IN FAVOR OF THE COM MERCIAL USE OF DRONES 1) Drones can revolutionize so many industries, especially agriculture 2) Using drones saves money 3) Drones are more energy efficient 4) The drone industry will create jobs 5) States are passing laws to protect privacy rights 6) The private sector will also find solutions to privacy concerns AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 103  Chapter 1 READING in ASSIGNMENTS Textbook AE 575 CH1 - Definitions and Classifications 104