UTS Module 8 Developmental Psychology Lesson PDF

GHUM02: UTS W/ BSN PREP AY 2022-2023 1st Semester MODULE 8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Lesson 1 – Introduction Lesson 2 – Environmentalist Perspective Lesson 3 – Organismic Perspective Lesson 4 – Psycho Dynamic Perspective LESSON 1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Introduction To what extent is the adult...

GHUM02: UTS W/ BSN PREP AY 2022-2023 1st Semester MODULE 8 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Lesson 1 – Introduction Lesson 2 – Environmentalist Perspective Lesson 3 – Organismic Perspective Lesson 4 – Psycho Dynamic Perspective LESSON 1 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Introduction To what extent is the adult you are today influenced by the child you once were? To what extent is a child fundamentally different from the adult he grows up to be? Rational or What is the basic nature of human driven by beings? emotions Self-regulated from within or is one’s behavior largely determined by external factors Nature vs. Nurture Heredity or Environment? Continuity vs. Discontinuity Is there a ‘pattern? Are the changes Gradual or Abrupt Cumulative over time or producing different behaviors in stages? Stability vs. Change Do traits in infancy endure throughout the lifespan or are personalities modified by interactions, experiences and acculturation?  The view that development is a cumulative process, gradually adding to the same type of skills is known as ________. A. Nurture B. Nature C. Continuous Development D. Discontinuous Development  Chronological Plato – idealism – never come to know reality –only filtered images and sometimes distorted by our senses. Individual will have their own perceptions. (Allegory of the cave) Aristotle – empiricism – life experiences can help clarify reality, practical knowledge Age of Enlightenment – 18th century (period of rigorous scientific, political and philosophical discourse) Charles Darwin – evolution theory …human beings viewed as part of nature. Adaptability was vital. Developmentalist – interdisciplinary approach, multiple influences. Seeking origins of adult behavior and attributes in childhood experiences…contextual approaches to human development: social, historical, cultural and biological. How are you different today from the person you were at 6 years old? What about at 16 years old? How are you the same as the person you were at those ages? Recitation. PRESENT MAJOR MODULE REQUIREMENT *SLIDES 118-124 This Lesson Module will look into the theories of Human Development. Human development is a dynamic and complex process that cannot be explained by only one theory. A view from many perspectives that can lead to an appreciation of the strengths and weaknesses of each theory. Generally, in the end we realize that the interaction of both nature and nurture can best explain the developmental process. Developmental theories Developmental theories provide a framework for examining, describing, and appreciating human development. For example, knowledge of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development helps nurses understand the importance of supporting the development of basic trust in the infancy stage. Trust establishes the foundation for all future relationships. from “womb to tomb” Developmental theories are also important in helping nurses assess and treat a person’s response to an illness. Understanding the specific task or need of each developmental stage guides caregivers in planning appropriate individualized care for patients. Specific developmental theories that cover systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception to the aging process until death, or from “womb to tomb.” Nursing Dimensions: Promotive-Preventive- Curative-Rehabilitative-Palliative Being in a the profession where one relates with individuals, sick or well, the effectiveness of a nurse’s approach will depend on how he or she understands, appreciates the diversities and common processes presented by patients/clients during clinical or practice encounters. Why is the wholistic concept important in nursing? Recitation KEY TERMS IMPORTANT  Philosophical Idealism - the philosophy that believes the ultimate nature of reality is ideal, or based upon ideas, values, or essences. The external, or real world cannot be separated from consciousness, perception, mind, intellect and reason in the sense of science. Humanism –a philosophical view that sees freedom, subjectivity and creativity as essential for understanding development. Stresses the importance of human values and dignity and it proposes that people can resolve problems through the use of science and reason, rather than looking to religious traditions Concern with the interests, needs, and welfare of humans. Empiricism –a philosophical view that all concepts originate in experience, that all concepts are about or applicable to things that can be experienced, or that all rationally acceptable beliefs or propositions are justifiable or knowable only through experience. Perspectives Naturalism – a philosophical stand that nature provides a child with a plan for development and that no harm will result if the child is allowed to develop with little adult supervision. Environmentalist Perspective – viewing people to be what they are made to be by the environments. Behaviorism – theoretical view that environmental factors are largely responsible for influencing observable changes during development.  Maturationism – theoretical view that hereditary mechanisms are largely responsible for influencing the path of development. Organismic perspective – viewing experience as less important than developmental influences from within the organism itself; people grow to be what they make themselves to be. Psychoanalytic perspective – viewing the significance of unconscious mechanisms in development. REVIEW: PHILOSOPHIES & PERSPECTIVES IN YOUR OWN WORDS Recitation. CLUSTERS OF MODERN PERSPECTIVES IN DEVELOPMENT (Hughes and Noppe, 1991) 3 MAJOR PERSPECTIVE CLASSIFICATIONS Key Summary Slide  ENVIRONMENTALIST ORGANISMIC PSYCHODYNAMIC Perspective Perspective Perspective British Empiricism Maturationism Psycho Analytic John Locke Arnold Gesell Sigmund Freud Behaviorism Naturalism Psycho Social Ivan Pavlov Jean-Jacques Rousseau Eric Erickson B.F. Skinner John Broadus Watson Albert Bandura Socio-Cultural Learning Cognitive Development Lev Vgotsky Theory Margaret Mead Jean Piaget Humanism Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers Ethology John Bowlby Moral Development Theory Lawrence Kohlberg LESSON 2 I. ENVIRONMENTALIST A. British Empiricism 1. John Locke – John Locke (1632–1704) was one of the greatest philosophers in Europe at the end of the seventeenth century. Tabula Rasa (blank slate)- In the four books of the Essay Locke considers the sources and nature of human knowledge. Book I argues that we have no innate knowledge. (In this he resembles Berkeley and Hume, and differs from Descartes and Leibniz.) So, at birth, the human mind is a sort of blank slate on which experience writes. In Book II Locke claims that ideas are the materials of knowledge and all ideas come from experience. The term ‘idea’, Locke tells us “…stands for whatsoever is the Object of the Understanding, when a man thinks” (I.1.8, N: 47).  Experience is of two kinds, sensation and reflection. One of these— sensation—tells us about things and processes in the external world. The other—reflection—tells us about the operations of our own minds. Reflection is a sort of internal sense that makes us conscious of the mental processes we are engaged in. Some ideas we get only from sensation, some only from reflection and some from both. Children are creatures who need adult to shape them. They are incomplete versions of an adult human being, and society’s role is to civilize them. B. Behaviorism Behaviorism is different from most other approaches because they view people (and animals) as controlled by their environment and specifically that we are the result of what we have learned from our environment. The behaviorist perspective is concerned with how environmental factors (called stimuli) affect observable behavior (called the response). Behaviorism also believes in scientific methodology (e.g., controlled experiments), and that only observable behavior should be studied because this can be objectively measured. Behaviorism rejects the idea that people have free will, and believes that the environment determines all behavior. Behaviorism is the scientific study of observable behavior working on the basis that behavior can be reduced to learned S-R (Stimulus-Response) units. Behaviorism has been criticized in the way it under- estimates the complexity of human behavior. Many studies used animals which are hard to generalize to humans, and it cannot explain, for example, the speed in which we pick up language. There must be biological factors involved.  The behaviorist perspective proposes two main processes whereby people learn from their environment: namely classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves learning by association, and operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of behavior. 1. Ivan Pavlov - (1849–1936) was a Russian scientist who introduced Classical conditioning (CC). Classical conditioning is a form of learning whereby a conditioned stimulus becomes associated with an unrelated unconditioned stimulus, in order to produce a behavioral response known as a conditioned response. By teaching dogs to associate the sound of a buzzer with being fed, Pavlov established the principles of classical conditioning. Though looking into natural reflexes and neutral stimuli he managed to condition dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell through repeated associated with the sound of the bell and food.  stimulus  response Behavior can be changed through conditioning w/ external conditions or stimuli Dog experiment: start salivating naturally when they see or smell food. Pavlov wanted to change behavior of dog through conditioning…(new stimulus) ringing the bell then produce food then dog would salivate…repeated several times, until…he would ring bell and dog would salivate even without seeing food.  The principles of CC have been applied in many therapies. These Example include systematic desensitization A spider phobic might (counter-conditioning process) for regard one small, phobias (step-by-step exposed to a stationary spider 5 feared stimulus at once) and aversion meters away as only therapy. modestly threatening, but a large, rapidly moving spider 1 meter away as highly threatening. The client reaches a state of deep relaxation, and is then asked to imagine (or is confronted by) the least threatening situation in the anxiety hierarchy. 2. Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher. B.F. Skinner investigated Operant Conditioning of voluntary and involuntary behavior. Skinner felt that some behavior could be explained by the person's motive. Therefore behavior occurs for a reason, and the three main behavior shaping techniques are: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment. Premise of ‘operant conditioning’: Behavior Modification 1. All behavior is learned. 2. Consequences result from behavior – reward and punishment. 3. Behavior that is rewarded with reinforcers tend to recur. 4. Positive reinforcement – praise, positive feedback 5. Negative reinforcement – removing stimulus immediately after a behavior = recurrence of behavior Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers — any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn (different from adversive stimuli — punishment — which result in reduced responses). A great deal of attention was given to schedules of reinforcement (e.g. interval versus ratio) and their effects on establishing and maintaining behavior. 3. John Broadus Watson – ( 1878- 1958), American psychologist who codified and publicized behaviourism, an approach to psychology. Watson's behaviorist theory did NOT focus on the internal emotional and psychological conditions of people (Watson believed Freud’s notions to be highly subjective and unscientific), but rather on their external and outward behaviors. He believed that a person's physical responses provided the only insight into internal actions.  Watson is best known for taking his theory of behaviorism and applying it to child development. He believed strongly that a child's environment is the factor that shapes behaviors over their genetic makeup or natural temperament. Many therapists use the principles of behaviorism that were initially developed and popularized by John B. Watson. However, many psychologists also recognize that the views of learning advanced by Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson underestimated the importance of thought or cognition. 4. Albert Bandura – 1925 US Canadian is known for his social learning theory. He is quite different from other learning theorists who look at learning as a direct result of conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment. Bandura asserts that most human behavior is learned through observation, imitation, and modeling. Bobo Doll Study Learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. Bandura's most famous experiment was the 1961 Bobo doll study. In the experiment, he made a film in which an adult model was shown beating up a Bobo doll and shouting aggressive words. The film was then shown to a group of children. Afterward, the children were allowed to play in a room that held a Bobo doll. Those who had seen the film with the violent model were more likely to beat the doll, imitating the actions and words of the adult in the film clip. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmBqwWlJg8U C. Socio-Cultural Learning 1. Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) - interested in how cultural elements which a particular society deems important – for example, customs, beliefs, skills and values – are passed on to new generations. His sociocultural theory declares that social interaction within the family and with knowledgeable members of the community is the primary means by which children acquire behaviors and cognitive processes relevant to their own society. Adult or peer intervention in this context is thus an essential part of the development process. Zone of Proximal Development ZPD 2. Margaret Mead (1901-1978) and Ruth Benedict (1887-1948) emphasized the experiential factors and claimed that different patterns of child rearing reflected in diverse cultural values would result in a variety of adult characteristics. Mead was the first anthropologist to study child- rearing practices and learning theory within social groups. Based on her observations, she proposed that children learned through imprinting. Imprinting is when children learn by watching adult behavior. She minimized the significance of psychoanalytic theorists and heredity mechanism in the developmental process. Margaret Mead Quotes “A small group of thoughtful people could change the world. Indeed, it's the only thing that ever has.” “Children must be taught how to think, not what to think.” “Always remember that you are absolutely unique. Just like everyone else.” “There is no greater insight into the future than recognizing...when we save our children, we save ourselves” LESSON 3 II. ORGANISMIC PERSPECTIVES Stresses the importance of factors within the organism itself and less on the role of experience and environment. A. Maturationism - plan of development is innate and environment a distant secondary influence. 1. Arnold Gesell (1880-1961)– American clinical psychologist, pediatrician and professor at Yale University. Maturation Theory (Genetics & Heredity) Fundamental to Gesell’s theory of development is that each child’s pattern of growth is unique and this pattern is directed by gene activity (Gesell, 1948). Gesell found the pattern of maturation follows a fixed developmental sequence in humans. Sequential development is evident in fetuses, in which there is a specified order of organ system development. Today we know that growth in humans is both cephalo-caudal and proximo-distal. The cephalocaudal pattern describes the sequence in which growth is fastest at the top (head and then down); proximo-distal growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities.  Genes direct the sequence of development; but environmental factors also influence development, resulting in developmental changes. For example, genes may direct the growth rate for an individual, but that growth is only maximized if environmental conditions are adequate. Poor nutrition or chronic disease often affects the growth rate and results in smaller stature, regardless of the genetic blueprint. However, adequate nutrition and the absence of disease cannot result in stature beyond that determined by heredity. Key Principles of Gesell's Maturation Theory: Children develop through similar and predictable sequences. However, Gesell noticed that they did so at their own pace, and suggested this development starts to occur before the child’s birth. The pace that the individual develops through the sequences is influenced by internal factors, such as physical and mental development and genetics. He disagreed with theorists who suggested that development was solely down to environmental factors. If a child experienced delayed development that, according to Gesell, would be due to heredity. A child should only be taught to complete tasks when they are physically and mentally ready to do so. Teaching a child to do something that is in advance of their developmental age would do them more harm.  B. Naturalism - Nature in the psychological sense: It means original endowment inherited by man. It includes instincts, emotions, desires, impulses and natural tendencies. The essence of “Naturalism” was to go back to the nature and fight against all sorts of artificialities. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) – philosophy of naturalism stresses that children are innately good unless corrupted by society’s evils. They come into the world equipped by God with a plan for their development. Rousseau s theory of education emphasized the importance of expression to produce a well- balanced, freethinking child. He believed that if children are allowed to develop naturally without constraints imposed on them by society they will develop towards their fullest potential, both educationally and morally. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=81KfDXTTtXE VIDEO RESOURCE: POLITICAL THEORY – Jean-Jacques Rousseau The 18th century Jean-Jacques Rousseau made the bold claim that modernity and civilisation are not improvements; they’ve dragged us from a primitive state of innocence and happiness. C. Cognitive Development Theory How individual thinks and how human processes vary. It is classified as organismic because it emphasizes internal mental processes and their interaction with the environment. 1. Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Piaget’s stages are a theory of how a child’s cognition — meaning their knowledge and understanding about the world — develops between birth and adulthood. He was an early psychologist who specialized in child development from the 1920s onward. Piaget developed his theories by watching children and making notes about their progress. The core idea of Piaget’s theory is that children develop by acting as “little scientists” who explore and interact with their world to understand people, objects, and concepts. They do this naturally, even without the help of an adult. Good video resource to explain the stages https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IhcgYgx7aAA&t=4s Stage Age Key information 0–2 Infants start to build an understanding of the world through their years senses by touching, grasping, watching, and listening. Stage1 Reflex activity only (0-1 mo) Stage 2 Hand mouth coordination; differentiation via sucking reflex (1-4 mos) Stage 3 (4-8 Hand eye coordination; repeats unusual events. mos) The Stage 4 sensorimotor (8- Coordination of 2 schemata; Infants develop object permanence stage (see below). 12mos) The most advanced cognitive achievement a child reaches during this stage - Object permanence refers to when an infant understands that an object still exists, even when they are not able to see, smell, touch, or hear it. Object permanence is important because it means that the infant has developed the ability to form a mental image, or representation, of an object rather than merely reacting to what they experience in their immediate environment. Stage 5 (12- New means through experimentation – follows sequential 18mos) displacements Stage 6 Internal Representations through mental combinations. (18- 24mos) Children develop language and abstract thought. The Children begin to use symbolic play (“playing pretend”), draw 2–7 pictures, and talk about things that happened in the past. preoperational years During the preoperational stage, the child is egocentric. This means stage they only understand the world from their perspective and struggle  Children develop language and abstract thought. The Children begin to use symbolic play (“playing pretend”), draw 2–7 pictures, and talk about things that happened in the past. preoperational years During the preoperational stage, the child is egocentric. This means stage they only understand the world from their perspective and struggle to see other peoples’ points of view. This includes a better ability to classify objects into groups and subgroups, the ability to understand logical orders. Children learn The concrete logical concrete (physical) rules about objects, such as height, 7–11 operational years weight, and volume. stage Children learn conservation, the idea that an object, such as water or modeling clay, remains the same even when its appearance changes. They become less egocentric and more rational. Children learn logical rules to understand abstract concepts and solve problems. The child is now able to analyze their environment and make The formal deductions. They move beyond the limits of understanding objects and facts, toward problem-solving. This involves creating theories operational 11+ about what is possible based on their existing knowledge. stage The child can now use their existing knowledge to create new theories about the world and make predictions about what will happen in the future. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8nz2dtv--ok Video resource: The Growth of Knowledge: Crash Course Psychology #18  D. Humanism In the mid-20th century in response to psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism; this perspective focuses on how healthy people develop and emphasizes an individual’s inherent drive towards self-actualization and creativity. Emphasizes human potential and an individual’s ability to change, and rejects the idea of biological determinism. 1. Abraham Maslow -(1908– 1970) was an American psychologist who is best known for proposing a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior. Maslow described a pattern through which human motivations generally move, meaning that in order for motivation to occur at the next level, each level must be satisfied within the individual themselves. These stages include: physiological needs: the main physical requirements for human survival, including homeostasis, food, water, sleep, shelter, and sex. safety needs: the need for personal, emotional, financial, and physical security. Once a person’s physiological needs are relatively satisfied, their safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. In the absence of physical safety – due to war, natural disaster, family violence, childhood abuse, institutional racism, etc. – people may (re-) experience post-traumatic stress disorder or transgenerational trauma. In the absence of economic safety – due to an economic crisis and lack of work opportunities – these safety needs manifest themselves in ways such as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, disability accommodations, etc. This level is more likely to predominate in children as they generally have a greater need to feel safe.  love and belonging: the need for friendships, intimacy, and belonging. This need is especially strong in childhood and it can override the need for safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents. Deficiencies within this level of Maslow’s hierarchy – due to hospitalism, neglect, shunning, ostracism, etc. – can adversely affect the individual’s ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships in general. esteem: the typical human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People often engage in a profession or hobby to gain recognition. Esteem needs are ego needs or status needs. People develop a concern with getting recognition, status, importance, and respect from others. Most humans have a need to feel respected; this includes the need to have self-esteem and self-respect.  self-actualization: Maslow describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be. Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically. For example, one individual may have a strong desire to become an ideal parent. In another, the desire may be expressed athletically. For others, it may be expressed in paintings, pictures, or inventions. Some examples of this include utilizing abilities and talents, pursuing goals, and seeking happiness.  Furthermore, this theory is a key foundation in understanding how drive and motivation are correlated when discussing human behavior. Each of these individual levels contains a certain amount of internal sensation that must be met in order for an individual to complete their hierarchy. The goal in Maslow’s theory is to attain the fifth level or stage of self-actualization. 2. Carl Rogers – (1902-1987) developed a personality theory that emphasized the importance of the self-actualizing tendency in shaping human personalities. He also believed that humans are constantly reacting to stimuli with their subjective reality (phenomenal field), which changes continuously. Over time, a person develops a SELF-CONCEPT based on the feedback from this field of reality. Figure 1. The phenomenal field refers to a person’s subjective reality, which includes external objects and people as well as internal thoughts and emotions. The person’s motivations and environments both act on their phenomenal field. One of Rogers’s main ideas about personality regards self- concept, our thoughts and feelings about ourselves. Unconditional Positive Regard Human beings develop an ideal self and a real self, based on the conditional status of positive regard. How closely one’s real self matches up with their ideal self is called congruence. Unconditional positive regard is an environment that is free of preconceived notions of value. Conditional positive regard is full of conditions of worth that must be achieved to be considered successful. Rogers (1980) explained it this way: “As persons are accepted and prized, they tend to develop a more caring attitude towards themselves” (p. 116).  The Good Life Rogers described life in terms of principles rather than stages of development. These principles exist in fluid processes rather than static states. He claimed that a fully functioning person would continually aim to fulfill his or her potential in each of these processes, achieving what he called “the good life.“ Rogers found that fully functioning individuals had several traits or tendencies in common: 1. A growing openness to experience–they move away from defensiveness. 2. An increasingly existential lifestyle–living each moment fully, rather than distorting the moment to fit personality or self-concept. 3. Increasing organismic trust– they trust their own judgment and their ability to choose behavior that is appropriate for each moment. 4. Freedom of choice– they are not restricted by incongruence and are able to make a wide range of choices more fluently. They believe that they play a role in determining their own behavior and so feel responsible for their own behavior. 5. Higher levels of creativity– they will be more creative in the way they adapt to their own circumstances without feeling a need to conform. 6. Reliability and constructiveness– they can be trusted to act constructively. Even aggressive needs will be matched and balanced by intrinsic goodness in congruent individuals. 7. A rich full life– they will experience joy and pain, love and heartbreak, fear and courage more intensely. E. Ethology Concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history (Hinde, 1989). It was first applied to research on children in the 1960s, but has become more influential in recent years. The origins of ethology can be traced to the work of Darwin. Its modern foundations were laid by two European zoologists, Lorenz and Tinbergen (Dewsbury, 1992). Watching the behaviors of animal species in their natural habitats, Lorenz and Tinbergen observed behavioral patterns that promote survival. The most well- known of these is imprinting, the early following behavior of certain baby birds that ensures that the young will stay close to the mother, and be fed, and protected from danger. 1. John Bowlby – 1907-1990 psychologist and theorist in matters child development. In Bowlby’s Attachment Theory, he asserted that much of child development is based on the innate need of children to form attachments. These attachments may involve any number of people, places, or things and ultimately have a substantial effect on onward development patterns throughout life. Bowlby (1969), who first applied this idea to the infant-caregiver bond, was inspired by Lorenz's (1952) studies of imprinting in baby geese. He believed that the human baby, like the young of most animal species, is equipped with a set of built-in behaviors that helps keep the parent nearby, increasing the chances that the infant will be protected from danger. Contact with the parent also ensures that the baby will be fed, but Bowly was careful to point out that feeding is not the basis of attachment. According to Bowlby, the infant's relationship to the parent begins as a set of innate signals that call the adult to the baby's side. As time passes, a true affectionate bond develops, which is supported by new cognitive and emotional capacities as well as a history of consistent, sensitive, responsive care by the parent. Out of this experience, children form an enduring affectional bond with their caregivers that enables them to use this attachment figure as a secure base across time and distance. The inner representation of this parent-child bond becomes an important part of personality. It serves as an internal working model, or set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures, the likelihood of receiving support from them during times of stress, and the interaction with those figures. This image becomes the basis for all future close relationships during infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adult life. F. Moral DevelopmentalTheory Lawrence Kohlberg – (1927- 1987) American psychologist believed that moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of stages. Morality- Recognition of the distinction between good and evil or between right and wrong; respect for and obedience to the rules of right conduct; the mental disposition or characteristic of behaving in a manner intended to produce good results. There were three levels of moral reasoning that encompassed the six stages. Like Piaget, subjects were unlikely to regress in their moral development, but instead, moved forward through the stages: pre-conventional, conventional, and finally post-conventional. Each stage offers a new perspective, but not everyone functions at the highest level all the time. People gain a more thorough understanding as they build on their experiences, which makes it impossible to jump stages of moral development. Level I PRE-CONVENTIONAL - This stage is labeled pre- conventional due to the limited association that children have with the outlined principles. They view the ethics taught as something that society implements, not as something they internalize themselves. Stage 1: Obedience and punishment orientation (How can I avoid punishment?) The self-interest of children in their decision making as they seek to avoid punishment at all costs. Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange Self-interest orientation (What’s in it for me? aiming at a reward) The second stage relies heavily on the exchange of favors and can be summarized with the common marketing saying “what’s it in for me?” Children at this stage are not motivated by friendship or respect but by the personal advantages involved. Level II CONVENTIONAL Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships - older children, adolescents, and most adults. This stage recognizes the desire to be accepted into societal groups as well as how each person is affected by the outcome. Interpersonal accord and conformity (Social norms, good boy – good girl attitude) Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order Authority and social-order maintaining orientation (Law and order morality) shows the moral development of a person as a part of a whole society. Each person becomes more aware of the impact of everyone’s actions on others and focuses now on their own role, following the rules, and obeying authorities. Level 3 (POST-CONVENTIONAL) Rare with adolescents and few adults Stage 5: Social contract orientation (Justice and the spirit of the law) acknowledges the introduction of abstract reasoning as people attempt to explain specific behaviors. begin to consider “What makes for a good society?” They are able to step back and assess each situation as a whole, reflecting on what is good and just. Stage 6: Universal ethical principles (Principled conscience) States that moral reasoning is based on personal values. Created to acknowledge the use of justice in moral reasoning. General, universal morals and ethics are used as a baseline for what is right and just. Equality, justice, dignity, and respect are all ideas that form the basis of universal principles. Resource: https://educationaltechnology.net/stages-of-moral-devel opment-lawrence-kohlberg/ LESSON 4 III. PSYCHODYNAMIC A. Psycho analytic Psychoanalytical theory explains development as primarily unconscious and influenced by emotion. Psychoanalytical theorists maintain that these unconscious drives influence development through universal stages experienced by all individuals (Berger, 2007). 1. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Austrian Freud’s psychoanalytical model of personality development states that individuals go through five stages of psychosexual development and that each stage is characterized by sexual pleasure in parts of the body: the mouth, the anus, and the genitals. Freud believed that adult personality is the result of how an individual resolved conflicts between these sources of pleasure and the mandates of reality (Berger, 2007; Santrock, 2009). Stage 1: Oral (Birth to 12 to 18 Months) Initially sucking and oral satisfaction are not only vital to life but also extremely pleasurable in their own rights. Late in this stage the infant begins to realize that the mother/parent is something separate from self. Disruption in the Stage 2: Anal (12 to 18 Months to physical or emotional availability of 3 Years) the parent (e.g., inadequate The focus of pleasure changes to bonding or chronic illness) could the anal zone. Children become affect an infant’s development. increasingly aware of the pleasurable sensations of this body region with interest in the products of their effort. Through the toilet- training process the child delays gratification to meet parental and societal expectations.  Stage 4: Latency (6 to 12 Years) In this stage Freud believed that Stage 3: Phallic or Oedipal (3 to 6 sexual urges from the earlier Years) oedipal stage are repressed and The genital organs are the focus of channeled into productive pleasure during this stage. The boy activities that are socially becomes interested in the penis; the acceptable. Within the girl becomes aware of the absence of educational and social worlds of the penis, known as penis envy. This is the child, there is much to learn a time of exploration and imagination and accomplish. as the child fantasizes about the parent of the opposite sex as his or her first love interest, known as the Oedipus or Electra complex. By the end of this stage the child attempts to reduce this conflict by identifying with the parent of the same sex as a way to win recognition and acceptance. Stage 5: Genital (Puberty Through Adulthood) In this final stage sexual urges reawaken and are directed to an individual outside the family circle. Unresolved prior conflicts surface during adolescence. Once the individual resolves conflicts, he or she is then capable of having a mature adult sexual relationship. Freud believed that the components of the human personality develop in stages and regulate behavior. These components are the id, the ego, and the superego. The id (i.e., basic instinctual impulses driven to achieve pleasure) is the most primitive part of the personality and originates in the infant. The ego represents the reality component, mediating conflicts between the environment and the forces of the id. The ego helps people judge reality accurately, regulate impulses, and make good decisions. The third component, the superego, performs regulating, restraining, and prohibiting actions. Often referred to as the conscience, the superego is influenced by the standards of outside social forces (e.g., parent or teacher).  Some of Freud’s critics contend that he based his analysis of personality development on biological determinants and ignored the influence of culture and experience. Other critics think that Freud’s basic assumptions such as the Oedipus complex are not applicable across different cultures. Psychoanalysts today believe that the role of conscious thought is much greater than Freud imagined (Santrock, 2008). B. Psycho-Social the development of the personality, including the acquisition of social attitudes and skills, from infancy through maturity. Eric Erickson - (1902- 1994) Freud had a strong influence on his psychoanalytical followers, including Eric Erikson who maintained that development occurred throughout the life span and but that it focused on psychosocial stages rather than psychosexual stages. According to Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, individuals need to accomplish a particular task before successfully mastering the stage and progressing to the next one. Each task is framed with opposing conflicts, and tasks once mastered are challenged and tested again during new situations or at times of conflict (Hockenberry and Wilson, 2011). Erikson's theory postulates that people advance through the stages of development based on how they adjust to social crises throughout their lives. These social crises instruct how individuals react to the surrounding world. Erikson’s eight stages of life are described here. TRUST versus MISTRUST (Birth to 1 Year) Establishing a basic sense of trust is essential for the development of a healthy personality. The infant’s successful resolution of this stage requires a consistent caregiver who is available to meet his needs. From this basic trust in parents, the infant is able to trust in himself, in others, and in the world (Hockenberry and Wilson, 2011). The formation of trust results in faith and optimism. A nurse’s use of anticipatory guidance helps parents cope with the hospitalization of an infant and the infant’s behaviors when discharged to home. AUTONOMY versus SENSE OF SHAME AND DOUBT (1 to 3 Years) By this stage a growing child is more accomplished in some basic self-care activities, including walking, feeding, and toileting. This newfound independence is the result of maturation and imitation. The toddler develops his or her autonomy by making choices. Choices typical for the toddler age-group include activities related to relationships, desires, and playthings. There is also opportunity to learn that parents and society have expectations about these choices. Limiting choices and/or enacting harsh punishment leads to feelings of shame and doubt. The toddler who successfully masters this stage achieves self-control and willpower. The nurse models empathetic guidance that offers support for and understanding of the challenges of this stage. INITIATIVE versus GUILT (3 to 6 Years) Children like to pretend and try out new roles. Fantasy and imagination allow them to further explore their environment. Also at this time they are developing their superego, or conscience. Conflicts often occur between the child’s desire to explore and the limits placed on his or her behavior. These conflicts sometimes lead to feelings of frustration and guilt. Guilt also occurs if the caregiver’s responses are too harsh. Preschoolers are learning to maintain a sense of initiative without imposing on the freedoms of others. Successful resolution of this stage results in direction and purpose. Teaching the child impulse control and cooperative behaviors helps the family avoid the risks of altered growth and development.. INDUSTRY versus INFERIORITY (6 to 11 Years) School-age children are eager to apply themselves to learning socially productive skills and tools. They learn to work and play with their peers. They thrive on their accomplishments and praise. Without proper support for learning new skills or if skills are too difficult, they develop a sense of inadequacy and inferiority. Children at this age need to be able to experience real achievement to develop a sense of competency. Erikson believed that the adult’s attitudes toward work are traced to successful achievement of this task (Erikson, 1963). During hospitalization it is important for the school-age child to understand the routines and participate as actively as possible in his or her treatment. For example, some children enjoy keeping a record of their intake and output. IDENTITY versus ROLE CONFUSION (Puberty) Dramatic physiological changes associated with sexual maturation mark this stage. There is a marked preoccupation with appearance and body image. This stage, in which identity development begins with the goal of achieving some perspective or direction, answers the question, “Who am I?” Acquiring a sense of identity is essential for making adult decisions such as choice of a vocation or marriage partner. Each adolescent moves in his or her unique way into society as an interdependent member. There are also new social demands, opportunities, and conflicts that relate to the emergent identity and separation from family. Erikson held that successful mastery of this stage resulted in devotion and fidelity to others and to their own ideals (Hockenberry and Wilson, 2011). The nurse provides education and anticipatory guidance for the parent about the changes and challenges to the adolescent. Nurses also help hospitalized adolescents deal with their illness by giving them enough information to allow them to make decisions about their treatment plan. INTIMACY versus ISOLATION (Young Adult) Young adults, having developed a sense of identity, deepen their capacity to love others and care for them. They search for meaningful friendships and an intimate relationship with another person. Erikson portrayed intimacy as finding the self and then losing the self in another (Santrock, 2008). If the young adult is not able to establish companionship and intimacy, isolation results because he or she fears rejection and disappointment (Berger, 2007). Nurses must understand that hospitalization increases a young adults’ need for intimacy; thus young adults benefit from the support of their partner or significant other during this time. GENERATIVITY versus SELF-ABSORPTION AND STAGNATION (Middle Age) Following the development of an intimate relationship, the adult focuses on supporting future generations. The ability to expand one’s personal and social involvement is critical to this stage of development. Middle-age adults achieve success in this stage by contributing to future generations through parenthood, teaching, and community involvement. Achieving generativity results in caring for others as a basic strength. Inability to play a role in the development of the next generation results in stagnation (Santrock, 2008). Nurses assist physically ill adults in choosing creative ways to foster social development. Middle- age persons often find a sense of fulfillment by volunteering in a local school, hospital, or church. INTEGRITY versus DESPAIR (Old Age) Many older adults review their lives with a sense of satisfaction, even with their inevitable mistakes. Others see themselves as failures, with their lives marked by despair and regret. Older adults often engage in a retrospective appraisal of their lives. They interpret their lives as a meaningful whole or experience regret because of goals not achieved (Berger, 2007). Because the aging process creates physical and social losses, some adults also suffer loss of status and function (e.g., through retirement or illness). These external struggles are also met with internal struggles such as the search for meaning in life. Meeting these challenges creates the potential for growth and the basic strength of wisdom. SUMMARY  ERIKSON PIAGET KOHLBERG FREUD DEVELOPMENTAL (PSYCHO- (COGNITIVE/ (DEVELOPMENT (PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGE/AGE SOCIAL MORAL OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT) DEVELOPMENT) DEVELOPMENT) REASONING) Infancy (birth to 18 Oral stage Trust vs. mistrust Sensorimotor period months) Ability to trust Progress from reflex others activity to simple repetitive actions Early Anal stage Autonomy vs. Preoperational period Pre-conventional childhood/toddler shame and doubt —thinking using level Punishment- (18 months to 3 Self-control and symbols Egocentric obedience years) independence orientation Preschool (3-5 Phallic stage Initiative vs. guilt Use of symbols Pre-conventional years) Highly Egocentric level Pre-moral imaginative Instrumental orientation Middle childhood Latent stage Industry vs. Concrete operations Conventional level (6-12 years) inferiority period Logical Good boy–nice girl Engaged in tasks thinking orientation and activities Adolescence (12- Genital stage Identity vs. role Formal operations Post conventional 19 years) confusion Sexual period Abstract level Social contract maturity, “Who thinking orientation am I?” Resources McLeod, S. A. (2013). Psychology perspectives. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/c hapter/theories-of-human-development/ Theories of Human Development https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/ 66092_Wong_Chapter_2.pdf MODULE REQUIREMENT Developmental Autobiography 130 points Through this assignment, you will have the opportunity to apply concepts and theories from the textbook to your own development through adolescence or early adulthood. You will write an autobiography that explores your physical/biological, cognitive and emotional and social development in childhood and early adulthood (as appropriate). Gather as much information as you can from family members, friends, baby books, scrapbooks, personal memories, medical records, etc. All information shared in this paper will be kept confidential; however, you only need to include information with which you are comfortable sharing. This paper must be written in a narrative, essay format. **Your paper must address the following: 1) Introduce yourself and provide some background information about factors that may have contributed to your development. (15 points) Date of birth Parent information (age at your birth, marital status) Siblings (ages, birth order) Social and cultural background 2) Physical development (30 points) Birth history Health factors (illness, allergies, injuries, nutrition, etc.) Development of fine and gross motor skills Impact of puberty (age, early vs. late maturing, etc.) ---->How does your development in this area compare to what is considered typical according to the textbook (or other outside sources)? Be specific. 3) Cognitive development (30 points) Apply the stages and/or concepts of Piaget’s theory to your development Language development, including any impact on your development Examples of cognitive developments and impact on your development (attention, memories, presence of disabilities, etc.) Influences of a child care or preschool program Influences of schooling (type of school, teachers, peer groups, etc.) ---->How does your development in this area compare to what is considered typical according to the textbook (or other outside sources)? Be specific. 4) Emotional and social development (30 points) Apply Erikson’s stages to your development thus far Temperament style Family influences and parenting styles used by your parents Gender identity and development Peer and/or romantic relationships Development of “self”, including self-esteem, self- concept, self-awareness, self-regulation, identity development ---->How does your development in this area compare to what is considered typical according to the textbook (or other outside sources)? Be specific. 5) Summary/Conclusion (25 points) Identify areas in which the interactions (overlapping) of the domains were clear in your development. Provide an overall summary/conclusion of how your development compared to typical development.  My Developmental Autobiography 1) Introduce yourself and provide some background Theories information about factors that may have contributed to your development. (15 points) Theories 2) 2) Physical development (30 points) Theories 3) 3) Cognitive development (30 points) Theories 4) 4) Emotional and social development (30 points) 5) 5) Summary/Conclusion (25 points) ANY QUESTIONS?