Introduction to Developmental Theories PDF
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This document provides an introduction to various developmental theories, exploring key concepts and perspectives in the field of psychology. It covers theories like attachment, behavioral learning, and cognitive development. The text details the ideas of prominent psychologists, such as Piaget, Erikson, and Vygotsky, while highlighting their roles in understanding human development through different stages of life. It promotes a holistic understanding of growth and change within individuals.
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INTRODUCTIONTODEVELOPMENTALTHEORIES AttachmentTheory John...
INTRODUCTIONTODEVELOPMENTALTHEORIES AttachmentTheory JohnBowlbyandMaryAinsworth Whatishumandevelopment? - Focusontheimportanceofearlyrelationshipswithcaregiversandhowtheserelationshipsimpact ★ Humandevelopmentreferstothephysical,cognitive,andpsychosocialdevelopmentofhumansthroughoutthe emotionalandsocialdevelopmentthroughoutlife. lifespan. BehavioralandSocialLearningTheories TypesofHumanDevelopment B.F.Skinner’sOperantConditioning ➔ Physicaldevelopmentinvolvesgrowthandchangesinthebodyandbrain,thesenses,motorskills,andhealth - Examineshowbehaviorisinfluencedbyrewardsandpunishments. andwellness. ➔ Cognitivedevelopmentinvolveslearning,attention,memory,language,thinking,reasoning,andcreativity. AlbertBandura’sSocialLearningTheory ➔ Psychosocialdevelopmentinvolvesemotions,personality,andsocialrelationships. - Highlightstheroleofobservationallearningandmodelinginacquiringnewbehaviors. D evelopmental theories areframeworksthatattempttoexplainhowindividualsgrowandchangethroughout MoralDevelopmentTheories theirlives. LawrenceKohlberg’sTheory These theories provide insights into the physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes that occur from - Exploreshowindividualsdevelopmoralreasoningthroughstages,fromselfinteresttoabstractethical infancythrougholdage. principles. Understanding these theories helps in recognizing the complex interactions between genetics, environment, andexperiencesthatshapehumandevelopment. EcologicalSystemsTheory UrieBronfenbrenner’sTheory SIGNIFICANCEANDPURPOSEINUNDERSTANDINGDEVELOPMENTALTHEORIES - Examineshowdifferentenvironmentalsystems(microsystem,mesosystem,exosystem,macrosystem, Understanding andchronosystem)interactandinfluencedevelopment ➔ Growth and Change: Help us understand the typical stages and patterns of growth and change in individuals.Theyofferaroadmapforwhattoexpectatvariousstagesoflife. COGNITIVEDEVELOPMENTTHEORIES Guiding Cognition ➔ GuidingPracticeandIntervention:Educatorsusethesetheoriestodesignage-appropriatecurricula,and Allmentalactivitiesassociatedwiththinking,knowing,andremembering. therapistsusethemtoaddressdevelopmentaldelaysordisorders. Childrenthinkdifferentlythanadultsdo. Informing JeanPiaget ➔ InformingPolicyandResearch:Theoriesinformresearchagendasandpolicydecisionsrelatedtochild (1896-1980)Swisspsychologistwhobecameleadingtheoristin1930’s welfare,educationalreform,andmentalhealthservices. Developmentalpsychologistwhointroduceda4stagetheoryofcognitivedevelopment BelievedthesestageswereBIOLOGICALandoccurredinthesameorderbutenvironmentandculturecould KEYPERSPECTIVEONDEVELOPMENTALTHEORIES changehowfastweprogressthroughthem. CognitiveDevelopmentTheories Piaget’sTheoryofCognitiveDevelopment JeanPiaget’sTheory - Focusesonhowchildrenconstructamentalmodeloftheworldthroughstagesofcognitive Piagetbelievedthat“childrenareactivethinkers, Theseunderstandingsareintheformofstructureshe development,fromsensorimotorexperiencestoformaloperationalthinking. constantlytryingtoconstructmoreadvanced called“schemas”. Vygotsky’sSocioculturalTheory understandingsoftheworld. - Emphasizestheroleofsocialinteractionandculturaltoolsincognitivedevelopment,introducing conceptsliketheZoneofProximalDevelopmentandscaffolding. Schemas ➔ Conceptsormentalframeworksthatpeopleusetoorganizeandinterpretinformation PsychosocialDevelopmentTheories ➔ Sometimecalledschemes ErikErikson’sTheory ➔ Aperson’s“pictureoftheworld” - Proposeseightstagesofpsychosocialdevelopment,eachcharacterizedbyacentralconflictthatmust beresolvedforhealthypsychologicalgrowth. Assimilation Interpretinganewexperiencewithinthecontextofone’sexistingschemas. Thenewexperienceissimilartotheotherpreviousexperiences. ★ Childrencannowunderstandconservation. ★ Classificationandcategorization. Accommodation ★ Lessegocentric. Interpretinganewexperiencebyadaptingorchangingorchangingone’sexistingschemas. ★ Inabilitytoreasonabstractlyorhypothetically 4. FormaloperationalStage(age12–Adulthood) Thenewexperienceissonoveltheperson’sschematamustbechangedtoaccommodateit. ★ Abilitytothinklogicallyaboutabstractprinciplesandhypotheticalsituations. ★ Hypothetico-deductivereasoning(Whatif…problems). Piaget’sApproach ➔ Primarymethodwastoaskchildrentosolveproblemsandtoquestionthemaboutthereasoningbehindtheir ★ Adolescentegocentrismillustratedbythephenomenonofpersonalfableandimaginaryaudience. solutions. ○ Personalfable ➔ Discoveredthatchildrenthinkinradicallydifferentwaysthanadults. abeliefheldbymanyadolescentstellingthemthattheyarespecialandunique,somuch ➔ Proposedthatdevelopmentoccursasaseriesof“stages”differinginhowtheworldisunderstood. so that none of life’s difficulties or problems will affect them regardless of their behavior. Piaget’s4StagesofDevelopment 1. SensorimotorStage(birth–2) SocialConstructivism:UnderstandingLearning ★ Informationisgaineddirectlythroughthesensesandmotoractions. ★ Inthisstage,thechildperceivesandmanipulatesbutdoesnotreason. LevVygotsky(1896-1934) ★ Symbolsbecomeinternalizedthroughlanguagedevelopment. Russian psychologist (originally studied law) - active in 1920's & 1930's. Came to influence Western ★ Objectpermanenceisacquired–theunderstandingthatanobjectcontinuestoexistevenifitcan’tbe researchersmainlyin1960'sand1980'swhentranslationsofhisworkbecameavailable seen. Muchofhisresearchisbasedonlanguagelearninginchildren. ○ ObjectPermanence Theawarenessthatthingscontinuetoexistevenwhentheycannotsense. LevVygotsky:Ideas Occurs as babies gainexperiencewithobjects,astheirmemoriesimprove,andasthey Keyideas/concepts:cognitivedevelopmentisessentiallyasocialprocess. developmentalrepresentationsoftheworldwhichPiaget’scalledschemas. Thoughtdevelopmentisdeterminedbylanguage. Before 6 months, infants act as if objects removed from sight cease toexist–Canbe Intellectualgrowthiscontingentuponthedevelopmentofthesocialkeyoflanguage. surprised from disappearance/reappearanceofaface(peek-a-boo)“Outofsight,outof SocialDevelopment/ConstructivistTheory mind”. Definition:Socialconstructionemphasizestheimportanceofcultureandcontextinunderstandingwhatoccurs 2. PreoperationalStage(2-7yearsold) insocietyandconstructingknowledgebasedonthisunderstanding(PagramandMcMahon,1997) ★ Thewordoperationsreferstological,mentalactivities;thus,thepreoperationalstageistheprelogical ZoneofProximalDevelopment(ZPD) stage.Childrencanunderstandlanguagebutnotlogic. ★ Emergenceofsymbolicthought–abilitytousewords,images,andsymbolsrepresenttheworld. ★ Centration – tendencytofocus,orcenter,ononlyoneaspectofasituationusuallyperceptualaspect andignoreotherrelevantaspectsofthesituation. ★ Egocentrism–inabilitytotakeanotherperson’sperspectiveorpointofview. ★ Lack the concept of conservation – which holds that two equal quantities remain equal even if the appearanceofoneischanged,aslongasnothingisaddedorsubtracted. ★ Irreversibility–achildcannotmentallyreverseasequenceofeventsorlogicaloperationsbacktothe startingpoint. ○ Egocentrism Thechild’sinabilitytotakeanotherperson’spointofview. - Childonthephonesays,“SeethepictureIdrewforyouGrandpa!Andshowthe LevVygotsky:SocialDevelopment/ConstructivistTheory picturetothephone”. ➔ Childrendonotdevelopinisolationbutinasocialworld. Includesachild’sinabilitytounderstandthesymbolsthatcanrepresentotherobjects. ➔ Thechild’senvironment,age,cultureandlifeexperiences,socialrelationshipsandtheirinteractionswithother ○ Conservation adults and children, need to be considered when reaching conclusions about children’s development. Anunderstandingthatcertainpropertiesremainconstantdespitechangesintheirform. (socio-culturalinfluences). Thepropertiescanincludemass,volume,andnumbers. ➔ Learningisbasedonreallifeexperiences.Socialandculturalinteractionisvitalforlearningtotakeplace. 3. ConcreteOperationalStage(7-12years) ➔ Languageisessentialtolearning.Itisthemainmeansbywhichadultscommunicateandtransmitinformation ★ Abilitytothinklogicallyaboutconcreteobjectsandsituations. tochildren. ➔ Childreninternalizelanguageasthoughtand‘innerspeech’.Therefore,thoughtistheresultoflanguage.This iscriticizedbyFox(2001),whoarguedthatifthoughtcannotexistwithoutlanguage,thenuntilachildspeaks; JeromeBruner-Keyideas theymustbedevoidofthought. ❖ Constructivist Learning is an active process. Learners construct new ideas/concepts based on current and previous LevVygotsky:Ideas learning. Bruner’s work supported discovery learning and children engaging in problem-solving ZoneofProximalDevelopment(ZPD) activities. Learningisacceleratedthroughthelearnerworkingwithortheteachingofa‘MoreKnowledgeableOther’. Smidt(2011,p.10)comments, “ForBruner,meaninghasalwaysbeenattheheartofanyinvestigationintomindandcognition. oneofProximalDevelopment Z Whenwetalkofmeaningwearetalkingaboutmakingsenseofsomething,ofunderstandingor “…notaspecificqualityofthechild,norisitaspecificqualityoftheeducationalsettingoreducators…itis… comprehendingit.” collaboratively produced in the interactionbetweenthechildandmoreknowledgeableothers.Theaimofthe ❖ Language collaborativeinteractionistoliftthelearnertobecomea‘headtaller’”(Vygotsky,1978,p.102) Languageisimportantinlearning,asithelpslearnerstodevelopthinkingskills,toproblemsolveand todealwithabstractconcepts. ❖ Motivation Learnersneedtobeinterestedandmotivatedtolearn. ❖ Sociallearning Bruner, like Vygostsky emphasized the social nature of learningandfeltadultsshouldplayanactive role in children’s learning. The teacher role is to facilitate learning and to encourage and support childrentolearn. ❖ Scaffolding Complextasksarebrokendownintosmallertasksforthechildtoachieve.Theadultworksalongside the child offering support. The support is graduallyreducedaslearningtakesplaceandthechildcan workindependently ScaffoldinginEducation ❖ Spiralcurriculum ➔ Instructionalscaffoldsareassistantframeworksthatteachersprovidestudentsforlearning. ThisopposesPiaget’sstagesoflearningandhisconceptofreadinesstolearn. ◆ Sensoryscaffolding ❖ Brunerarguedthat… ◆ graphicscaffolding Schools waste time trying to match the complexity of subject materialtoachild’scognitivestageof ◆ interactivescaffolding development. ◆ technologicalscaffolding Childrenareheldbackbyteachersascertaintopicsareseenastoodifficulttounderstand. JeromeBruner(1915) SpiralApproach Americanpsychologist.Focusedonschoolinginthe1950's.Brunerbelievedtherole,purposeandmethodof ➔ Different topics are studiedmorethanonce.Eachtimetheyarerevisited,itisatadeeperandmorecomplex educationshouldreflectthevaluesofsociety. lev Influenced by Vygotsky and the social constructivist approach to learning. Bruner was interested in how ➔ ‘Webeginwiththehypothesisthatanysubjectcanbetaughteffectivelyinsomeintellectuallyhonestformto contextandcultureinfluencedlearning. anychildatanystageofdevelopment.’ ➔ Advantage:Aspiralcurriculumcanhelplearnerstolinkatopictoarangeofconcepts,asitisrevisited. JeromeBruner-Keyideas:Threemodesoflearning ➔ Criticism:Somelearnersmayviewthespiralapproachastoorepetitive. ➔ Brunerproposedtherearethreewaysormodesofmakingsenseofourworld… ◆ Enactive:actions Cognitivist:keyimpactsonlearning Musclememory:ababyremembershowtoshakearattle,adult:howtotypeordriveacar. 1. Child/learner centered approach to teachingandlearning:Discoverylearning;Activelearning;Inquirybased ◆ Iconic:imagesandpictures learning;Reciprocallearning. Information is stored as mental pictures. This is why diagrams and images are useful for 2. Teacher as facilitator: The role is guiding/helping studentstolearnratherthantransmissionofinformation– learning. zoneofproximaldevelopmentandscaffolding. ◆ Symbolic:Informationisstoredasacode,symbolsandlanguage. 3. EducationisshapedbySociety:Alignmentwithvaluesandbeliefsystems Symbolsofferflexibilityinthattheycanbemanipulated,orderedandclassified.Theycanalso be used to describe and explain abstract information that cannot be explored through the enactiveandiconicmodes. Freud’sPsychosexualStagesofDevelopment I t’slikehaving5miniaturepersonalities,eachlastingacoupleofyearsuntilyoureachmaturity. SigmundFreud(1856-1939)PsychosexualStagesofDevelopment Eachstagepresentsyouwithauniquechallenge,andifyousuccessfullyovercomethatchallenge,you ➔ SigismundSchlomoFreud acquireafullymaturepersonality. ➔ AnAustrianNeurologist But if you somehow fail to overcome a challenge of one of the stages you become stuck or fixated ➔ AttendedtheUniversityofViennaattheageof17andin1881hegraduatedinMedicineFaculty. there. ➔ Thefollowingyear,heworkedatTeodorMeynert’sPsychiatricClinic. Thisiswherealotofyourpersonaluniquenesscomesfrom,your“stuckness”orfixationataparticular stageofpersonalitydevelopment. WhatisPsychosexualDevelopment? Freudbelievedthatadultpersonalityproblemsweretheresultofearlyexperiencesinlife. 1. OralStage Hebelievedthatwegothroughfivestagesofpsychosexualdevelopmentandthatateachstageofdevelopment Duringthefirstyearoflife,themouthisasiteofsexualandaggressivegratification. weexperiencepleasureinonepartofthebodyratherthantheother. Aninfant'slifecentersonhismouth. Oneofthefirstobjectsouttherethatprovidesaninfantwithoralsatisfactionishismother’sbreast. WhatareErogenouszones? Themother’sbreastisamainsourceofconnectionandsatisfaction. Erogenouszonesarepartsofthebodythathaveespeciallystrongpleasure-givingqualitiesatparticularstages ofdevelopment. ➔ Couldthiseverbeaproblem? ➔ Whenwasthelasttimeyousawa10-year-oldbreastfeeding? WhatisPsychosexualDevelopment? ➔ Eventuallyallinfantshavetobeweanedfromtheirmother’sbreast. Freud thought that our adult personality is determined by the way we resolve conflicts between these early ➔ Weaningpresentstheinfantwithhisfirstconflictbetweenhisdesireandreality. sourcesofpleasure-themouth,anus,andgenitalsandthedemandofreality. ➔ Iftheinfantfailstowean,orisweanedharshlyorincompletely,hewillbecomefixatedattheoralstage. Whatisfixation? ➔ Hewilldevelopanoralcharacterinwhichhewillfeeldominatedbyfeelingsofdependencyandhopelessness. Fixation is the psychoanalytic defense mechanism that occurs when the individual remains locked in an ➔ Aswesuccessfullyovercomethechallengeofweaningandgainingcontroloverourabilitytosatisfyouroral earlierdevelopmentalstagebecauseneedsareunder–orover-granted. desires,wemovetothenextstageofdevelopment. Examplesoffixation; ○ Weaningachildtooearlyoruntiltoolate Forthosewhogetstuckintheoralstage…. ○ Beinglenientortoostrictintoilettrainingthechild Youmayfindyourselfpreoccupiedwithoralthings,liketalking,eating,smoking,anddrinking. ○ Punishingthechildformusturbation You’llneveroutgrowtheneedforconstantoralstimulation. ○ Smotheringthechildwithtoomuchattention 2. AnalStage Whatmakesyourpersonalitydifferentfromothers? Allbabieshavetogrowupsometime,andwhentheydo,theygraduatetotheerogenousfocusofthe Freud’ssearchfortheanswerstothisledhimtothediscoverythatthecluestounderstandingtheuniqueness analstage. ofanindividual'spersonalityarefoundininfancyandchildhood. Thequestionatthisageispoop….ToPoopornottopoop? The personality that you live with today, the one that charms you to get dates, makes lists, and never gets anythingdone,makessurethatyourlockerisnotamesswasmoldedinyourearliestdays. ThinkDefecation AccordingtoFreudyouwereafinalproductbythetimeyouhitpuberty. ➔ Freudemphasizedthecontroloverdefecatingasthepleasurecenterfrom18monthsto3yearsold. ➔ Thecentralconflictfortoddlersiscontrol. ➔ According to Freud, your unique character and peculiar behavior habits are the products of how your ➔ Kids in this stage want the ability to poopwhenevertheywantandwherevertheywant.Likeintheirpants! personalitydevelopsduringchildhood. Buttherealityisthattheyhavetoholditin. ➔ Asachildandevenasateenager,yougothroughaseriesofstagesinwhichyougrowandmature. SomeofyourAdultcharacteristicsmaybetheConsequenceofhowyourParentshandledyourToilettraining. Freud’sPsychosexualStages Ifyou'remessy,sloppyorcareless,itspeaksofanexpulsiverebellionagainstparentalcontrol. 1. OralStage:Birthto18Months If you're withholding, obstinate, and obsessed with neatness, you’ve learned control in reaction to your 2. AnalStage:18monthstothreeyears toilettrainingexperience. 3. Phallicstage:3yearsto7-8years Maturityandsuccessintheanalstageresultinyourabilitytocontrolyourself.Soletgo,butmakesure 4. LatencyStage:7-8yearstopuberty you'reintherightplaceandtherighttime. 5. GenitalStage:PubertytoAdulthood 3. PhallicStage r est of their lives looking for a man to make them Beginsduringthethirdyearoflifeandmaylastuntilthechildis6. complete. Thechildinthisstageisfocusedonthestimulationofthegenitals. InthePhallicstage,gratificationbeginswithautoeroticism.Thatmeansmasturbation.Butourneed forsatisfactionsoonturnstoourparents,typicallytheparentsoftheoppositesex. FailuretoGraduateamongBoys Asthishappens,wefindourselvesinoneofFreud’smostcontroversialandstrangecontributionstothe If a man finds himself fixated because he fails to join forces with dad, he’s been successfullyemasculated. studyofpersonality,theOedipuscomplex. (deprivedofhismaleroleidentity) He becomes a failure at life, unable to strive for achievement because of his disablingguiltgeneratedfrom ➔ Asadults,mostofuswouldrecoilatthethoughtofmarryingsomeonelikeourmothersorfathers,least competingwithhisfatherforhismother’sattention. ofallhavingsexwiththem,butwe’veallknownalittleboywhowantstogrowupandmarryhis orherparents. FailuretoGraduateamongGirls ➔ Freud observed that children in the phallic stage of personality shifted from self-gratification to With the successful resolution of the Electra complex, a girl finds herself equipped to deal with her adult seekinggratificationfromtheiroppositesexparent. sexualandintimaterelationships.Sheturnsherpenisenvyintoahealthysearchfora“fatherly”husband. ➔ There is one problem: the parents of the same sex. And a resentment or childhoodhatesometimes Butifshefails,shebecomesfixatedandmaybeoverlyseductiveandflirtatious. growstowardsthatparentofthesamesex. 4. LatencyStage OedipusRex During this stage, no new significant conflicts or impulses are assumed to arise. This lasts from Thebasicstoryisaboutakingwhohasamalechildwhoprophetspredictwillonedaykillthekingand about 7 years to puberty. The primary personality development during this time is that of the marrythequeen. superego. Topreventthis,thekingtakesthechildintothewoodsandleaveshimtodie. Things cool down, so to speak. There’s no rivalry with theoppositesexparent.There’snobattlefor Thechildissavedandraisedbyapeasantfamily. controloversatisfaction. Onedayhereturnstothecitytofindabetterlifeforhimself,butontheroadheencountersthekingneitherof It’satimeforbasicsocialexplorationlikemakingfriendsandforminglittlesocialcliques. themknowoftheirrelationtooneanother. Thereisafightandthekingiskilled. 5. GenitalStage Hesoonattractstheeyeofthemourningqueenandeventuallymarriesher,thusfulfillingtheprophecy. Duringthistime,thepersondirectssexualimpulsestowardsomeoneoftheoppositesex. AdolescencebringsaboutareawakeningofOedipalorElectraconflictsandareworkingofearlier childhoodidentifications. Boys Girls Thechildisnowopentolearninghowtoengageinmutuallysatisfyingsexualrelationships. For the male child the attraction to the mother Freud was often criticized for his neglect of female continues to develop into what Freud called the sexuality. K eepInmindthatFreudneverstatedthatallpeoplereachthispointoffullmaturity. OedipusComplex. Thispointismorelikeanideal,somethingtostrivefor,alifelongproject. But if s omebody doesn't make it, he could easily fall back into selfish phallicism. This seems to The Male Child's father blocks him from his mother. So, he consulted the Greeks again, finding a similar conjureupimagesoftheselfishloverwhodoesn'tcareaboutthepleasureoftheotherpartner. Thisgetsfrustratingfortheboy. Oedipal tale about a woman named Electra. Electra gets someone to kill her mother to avenge her father’s PSYCHOSOCIALSTAGESOFDEVELOPMENT death. ERIKH.ERIKSON Sofrustratingthatitsometimesgrowsintoafullblown Forgirls,theirattractionshiftstotheirfathersbecause KnownastheFatherofPsychosocialDevelopment hatredforhisfather. they come to resent their mothers for a strange reason, BorninFrankfurt,GermanyinJune15,1902 penisenvy. Erikson was of mixed Danish and Jewish parentage. After his parents' divorce, he had no contact with his father. Boys find themselves afraid of their fathers. Freud According to Freud little girls stop desiring their Aftercompletinghiseducation,hewanderedaroundEurope,unsureofwhatcareertofollow. calledthiscastrationanxiety. mothers because they realize that they lack a penis HetriedpaintingandwoodcarvingandacceptedanoffertoteachartataprivateschoolinViennaforchildren liketheirfathers. whoseparentswereundergoinganalysisatFreud'sPsychoanalyticInstitute. So, little girls can’t identify with their father because WhenhecametoAmerica,heneededtoredefinehisidentityasanimmigrant. theylackapenis.So,whattodo?Theyspendtherestof Heconcludedthatthequestforidentityisthemajorthemeinlife. theirliveslookingforapenis.Essentially,theyspendthe ○ E ssentialtoErikson'stheoryisthedevelopmentoftheegoandtheego'sabilitytodealwithaseriesof Age:EarlyChildhood2to6years crisesorpotentialcrisesthroughouttheindividual'slifespan. Conflict:InitiativevsGuilt ImportantEvent:Independence ERIKSON’S8STAGESOFDEVELOPMENT Description: Eachstageischaracterizedbyadifferentconflictthatmustberesolvedbytheindividual. ○ Children in this stage are eager for responsibility. They continue to be assertive and like to take Whentheenvironmentmakesnewdemandsonpeople,conflictsarise. initiative. Thereare2waysincopingw/eachcrisis,anadaptiveormaladaptiveway. PositiveOutcome: Wheneachcrisisisresolved,apersonwillhavesufficientstrengthtodealw/thenextstagesofdevelopment. ○ Childrenmustlearntoacceptw/oguilt.Theymustbeguiltfreewhenusingtheirimagination. NegativeOutcome: STAGE1:ORAL-SENSORY ○ When unresolved they become guilt-ridden andrepressed.Theymaybecomeadultswhoinhibittheir Age:Infancyto12-18mos. impulsesandareself-righteouslyintolerantofothers. Conflict:TrustvsMistrust ImportantEvent:Feeding VirtueofPurpose Description: - the courage to envisionandpursuevaluedgoals,uninhibitedbythedefeatofguiltandfearof ○ Trustandmistrustareestablishedinthefeedingsituation.Trustallowsaninfanttoletthemotheroutof punishment. sight.Themother'ssensitivecaretothebaby'sneedslaysthegroundworkforthechild'ssenseofself. Example: PositiveOutcome: - A4yr-oldpassingtoolstoaparentwhoisfixingabicycle. ○ Familiarity,comfort,andnourishmentaremet. NegativeOutcome: STAGE4:LATENCY ○ Children will see the world as unfriendly and unpredictable, they will havetroubledevelopingclose Age:Elementary&MiddleSchool6to12years relationships.Theybecomesuspicious,fearful,andmistrustingoftheirsurroundings. Conflict:IndustryvsInferiority ImportantEvent:School VirtueofHope Description: - thebeliefthattheirneedswillbemetandtheirwishescanbeattained. ○ Theissuetoberesolvedhastodowithachild'scapacityforproductivework-achildlearnstocount, Example: read,andusecomputers. - Babieswillbegintounderstandthatobjectsandpeopleexistevenwhentheycannotseethem. PositiveOutcome: ○ Itisessentialforchildrentodiscoverpleasureinbeingproductive. STAGE2:MUSCULAR-ANAL NegativeOutcome: Age:Toddlerperiod1to2years ○ If they feel inadequate, theymayregresstoanearlierlevelofdevelopment-lackofself-initiative;if Conflict:AutonomyvsShameandDoubt they become too industrious, they may neglect relationships with other people and become ImportantEvent:ToiletTraining workaholics. Description: ○ Toddlerstrytousetheirdevelopingmusclestodoeverythingthemselves-towalk,tofeed,anddress. VirtueofCompetence PositiveOutcome: - aviewoftheselfasabletomasterandcompletetasks. ○ Childrenmusttakemoreresponsibilityfortheirownfeeding,toileting,&dressing.Parentsmustavoid Example: overprotection. - Childrenwanttodoproductiveworkontheirown. NegativeOutcome: ○ Ifparentssettoomanylimitsortoofew, childrenbecomecompulsiveaboutcontrollingthemselves. STAGE5:ADOLESCENCE Fearoflosingself-controlmayfillthemwithinhibitions,doubt,shameandlossofself-esteem. Age:Adolescence12to18yrs Conflict:IdentityvsRoleConfusion VirtueofWill ImportantEvent:PeerRelationships - childrenlearntomaketheirowndecisionsandtouseself-restraint Description: Example: ○ Adolescentsareinsearchofanidentitythatwillleadthemtoadulthood.Theymakeastrongeffortto - In this stage, children begin to assume important responsibilities for self care like feeding, answer “Who am I”? Adolescents‘ searching for identity makes them susceptible to fads, cults, and toileting&dressing. gang loyalties to resolve their crisis of identityvsconfusion.Loveisanotheravenuetowardidentity. Erikson believed that males cannot achieve true intimacy until they have achieved a stable identity. STAGE3:LOCOMOTOR emales, he thought, achieve intimacy before identity because girls put their identity aside as they F PositiveOutcome: definethemselvesbythemantheywillmarry. ○ Tohave&nurturechildrenandorbecomeinvolvedwithfuturegenerations. PositiveOutcome: NegativeOutcome: ○ Adolescentsmustmakeaconscioussearchforidentity. ○ Toomuchstagnationcanresultinselfindulgenceoreveninphysicalorpsychologicalsickness. NegativeOutcome: ○ roleconfusion,feelingsofinadequacy,isolationandindecisiveness VirtueofCare - acommitmenttotakecareofthepersons,theproducts,andtheideasonehaslearnedtocarefor. VirtueofFidelity Example: - sustained loyalty, faith, or a senseofbelongingnesstofriendsandcompanions.Fidelityisnot - Generativityisexpressedthroughactivitiesliketeachingandmentorship;italsotakestheform onlythecapacitytotrustothersandoneselfbutalsothecapacitytobetrustworthy. ofproductivityorcreativitytofurtherdeveloppersonalidentity. Example - Adolescents attempt to establish their own identities & see themselves as separate fromtheir STAGE8:MATURITY parents. Age:65yearstodeath Conflict:IntegrityvsDespair STAGE6:YOUNGADULTHOOD ImportantEvent:Reflectiononand Age:YoungAdulthood19to40yrs acceptanceofone’slife Conflict:IntimacyvsIsolation Description: ImportantEvent:LoveRelationships ○ Seeingorderandmeaningintheirlives Description: PositiveOutcome: ○ The most important events are love relationships. Intimacy refers to one’sabilitytorelatetoanother ○ Theadultfeelsasenseoffulfillmentaboutlifeandacceptsdeathasanunavoidablereality. humanbeingonadeep,personallevel. NegativeOutcome: PositiveOutcome: ○ People who do notachieveacceptanceareoverwhelmedbydespair,realizingthattimeistooshortto ○ Theyoungadultmustbewillingtobeopenandcommittedtoanotherindividual. seek other roads to integrity; past lives are viewed as a series of disappointments, failures and NegativeOutcome: misfortunes. ○ Thoseunableorunwillingtosharethemselveswithotherssufferasenseoflonelinessorisolation. VirtueofWisdom Individualwithintimacy Individualwhoisolatesthemselves - accepting the life one has lived withoutmajorregretsoverwhatcouldhavebeenorwhatone shouldhavedonedifferently.Itimpliesacceptingone'sdeathastheinevitableendofalifelived Haveastronganddeepromanticrelationship Haveabadromanticrelationship&nocloseness wellasoneknewhowtoliveit. Example: Havecloserelationshipswithfriendsandfamily Norelationshipswithfriendsandfamily - Anagedpersonmayfinditnecessarytoreflectwhattheyhadaccumulatedthroughoutlife. Havestrongsocialsupport Haveweaksocialsupport CritiqueonErikson’sPsychosocialTheory 1. Eriksonhasbeencriticizedforhislooseconnectionsofcasestudiesandconclusions.Histheory,likeFreud's, VirtueofLove isdifficulttosupportwithempiricalevidence. - ayoungadultwithastrongidentityisreadytofuseitwiththatofanotherperson; 2. Some ofhisconceptsarealsohardtoassessobjectivelyortouseasabasisforresearch;andthereisnoreal - mutualityofdevotion,involvescommitment,sacrifice,andcompromise evidencethathisstagesunfoldinthesequenceheproposes. Example: 3. Like Freud, Erikson too has been criticized for an anti female bias, since he uses the male as the normfor - Sharingoneselfwithothersonamoral,emotional,andsexuallevel;marriage healthydevelopment. 4. For Erikson, a decision not to fulfill the natural procreativeurgehasseriousconsequencesfordevelopment. STAGE7:MIDDLEADULTHOOD Thushelimits"healthy"developmenttolovingheterosexualrelationshipsthatproducechildren.Hisexclusion Age:Middleadulthood40to ofsingle,celibate,homosexual,andotherchildlesslifestyleshasbeencriticized. 65years 5. His assertion that people establish their identity in adolescence is too narrow.Otherresearchshowsthatthe Conflict:GenerativityvsStagnation searchforidentitycontinuesduringadulthood. ImportantEvent:Parenting 6. Furthermore,Erikson'sviewthatchildlesspeoplehavetroubleachievinggenerativityisconsiderednarrowby Description: manypsychologists. ○ Generativityreferstotheadult’sabilitytocareforanotherperson. COMPAREDWITHFREUD,ERIKSON'SGOODPOINTS 1. Freud concentrated on the individual's instinctual drives and interest in different parts of the body while Eriksonemphasizesthechild'sinteractionswiththeenvironment. 2. Erikson felt that Freud's view of society was too negative because Freud saw civilization as a source of discontent,animpedimenttobiologicaldrives. 3. UnlikeFreud,Erikson'stheoryismorecomprehensiveandencompassestheyearsfrominfancytooldage. 4. For Erikson, the course of development is reversible, meaning personality structures built earlier inlifecan undoforbetterorworse.ForFreud,personalitystructuresarefixedbytheageof5.
