How Learning Shapes Behaviour PDF

How Learning Shapes Behaviour  Behaviour and Personality Focuses on simple explanations for outward behaviour Not concerned with the inner workings of the mind Believes that individual differences in personality are due to social learning Learning how to behave from w...

How Learning Shapes Behaviour  Behaviour and Personality Focuses on simple explanations for outward behaviour Not concerned with the inner workings of the mind Believes that individual differences in personality are due to social learning Learning how to behave from watching others’ behaviour How to get others to do what you want?  Operant Conditioning Dolphins learn to perform tricks through operant conditioning, which shapes their behaviour through rewards Mike Price/Fotolia Four Ways of Modifying Behaviour Positive Negative Positive Negative Reinforcement Reinforcement Punishment Punishment  Table 8.1 Good Thing Bad (aversive) Thing Administering Positive reinforcement Positive punishment (a reward: money, (spanking) candy) Taking away Negative punishment Negative (taking a toy away; reinforcement (turning time-out) off a shock)  Positive Reinforcement Rewards or incentives for good behaviour Often the most effective way to shape behaviour B. F. Skinner studied positively reinforcing animals in Skinner boxes Used gradual training that rewarded behaviour progressively closer to the desired one, called shaping  Negative Reinforcement Rewards desired behaviour by removing something aversive For example, pulling a lever to stop a shock  Positive Punishment Administering something aversive after misbehaviour Punishment is not the most effective discipline technique Changes behaviour only temporarily Can cause children to become more aggressive  Negative Punishment Stopping bad behaviour by removing something good Also known as time-out For example, sending someone to prison removes their freedom  Reinforcement Schedules Continuous reinforcement schedule Partial reinforcement schedule Pixabay.com Four Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules Fixed-ratio Variable-ratio Fixed-interval Variable-interval  Reinforcement Schedules Gambling often works on a variable-ratio schedule, one reason it can be addictive  Socialization How children learn to become mature members of society Cultures vary in what is considered acceptable behaviour Operant conditioning helps enforce culturally determined gender differences  Social Learning Albert Bandura Learning by observing the rewards and punishments that others receive Children (and sometimes adults) look to role models to see how to behave Another form of socialization Observational Learning Pixabay.com  Reciprocal Determinism A person’s behaviour also causes the environment Shape environment through actions Bandura believed personality: Causes and is caused by behaviour Both causes and is caused by the environment An Overview on the Reciprocal Determinism Concept With Examples, Psycholo genie. © Buzzle.com, Inc. Reprinted with permission. (Pearson Canada Inc.)  Operant Conditioning in Action Behaviour Modification Using conditioning to improve behaviour Reward only acceptable behaviour Effective for treating behaviour problems and psychological disorders Also useful for changing typical behaviour How Behaviour Modification Works Token Behavioural Economies Activation  Breaking Bad Habits Using Behaviour Modification on Yourself ! Change your own habits Martin Lee/Fotolia How Far Can Behaviour Modification Go? We are born with certain tendencies, but our environment also shapes how we behave Including rewards and punishments Reciprocal determinism also plays a part Behaviourism does not rule out free will  Expectancies What someone expects to happen Based on past experiences of what was rewarding Involves thought and contemplation Decisions also based on reinforcement value How enticing a particular reward is Pixabay.com  Locus of Control Internal External  Classical Conditioning Associating two things not normally associated with each other Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with feeding dogs Basic elements: Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) Figure 8.2 The cat food is the unconditioned stimulus that produces the unconditioned response of the cat salivating. The sound of the can opener is the conditioned stimulus, which will eventually produce the conditioned response of the cat salivating (Pearson Canada Inc.) Example Pixabay.com CC and Fear  CC and Fear Conditioned responses can become generalized Response applied to things similar to the conditioned stimulus Can reverse the learning to eliminate fear, called deconditioning Can begin with discrimination, making fear less broad But learning it again would happen more quickly, known as spontaneous recovery  Habituation Getting used to something in the environment and not responding as strongly anymore Vitaly Goncharov/Shutterstock  How did you sleep last night? Sleep conditioning Use classical conditioning to sleep better Pixabay.com Personality Across the Lifespan  Is personality stable throughout life? Pixabay.com  Personality Changes Kathy Hutchins Photography/Newscom (left); Yoshikazu Tsuno/Newscom (right) Methods for Longitudinal Study Measuring Follows a group of people as they age Personality Cross-Sectional Study Over Time Data collected at one time that compares people of different ages Personality Child Temperament During Genetically based behavioural tendencies seen in young Childhood & children Adolescence With age, temperament solidifies into personality Follows physical development Temperament Motor/ Cognitive Emotional Styles Motivational Activity Distractibility Reactivity Rhythmicity Attention Mood Approachabilit y Table 9.1: The Big Five and Corresponding Child Temperament Constructs Child Temperament Constructs Adult Personality Traits (the Big Five) Positive affect (smiling, happiness) Extraversion Affiliativeness (liking to be around others) Agreeableness Effortful control (control over behaviour) Conscientiousness Negative affect (crying, sadness) Neuroticism Orienting sensitivity (being alert) Openness Based on Hampson, S. E. (2012). Personality processes: Mechanisms by which personality traits “get outside the skin.” Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 315-339. Does Childhood temperament can Temperament predict adult personality, sometimes Predict For example, undercontrolled Personality? children are more likely to abuse alcohol and drugs and to have financial problems Changes in Big Childhood Five Mature as they better control emotions and actions Personality Become more inhibited with age Traits Especially between 4 and 9 Related to higher conscientiousness Pixabay.com Changes in Big Adolescence Five Openness to experience increases between 11 and Personality 18 Traits Increased understanding of intellectual and abstract ideas Increase in conscientiousness and agreeableness Changes in Self-esteem changes Self-Esteem moderate during elementary school Dips during early teen years Increases during high school and young adulthood Girls’ self-esteem doesn’t increase as fast as boys’ does Lisa F. Young/Shutterstock Tasks of 1. Acquiring temporal perspective Adolescence 2. Acquiring self-certainty 3. Role experimentation 4. Apprenticeship 5. Sexual polarization 6. Questions of authority (being a leader and a follower) 7. Ideological commitment Figure 9.3 Stages of the Life Span  Firstborns Birth Order Higher in conscientiousness and neuroticism More dominant (bossy) Middleborn Lower in conscientiousness Younger Birth order has only a small Higher in openness to experience effect on personality More reckless Lastborns score higher in agreeableness Only children Better relationships with parents Compensate for the lack of siblings  Personalities mellow as we Personality: move into full adulthood Young Less neurotic and more conscientious Adulthood to Neuroticism continues to decline into old age Old Age Increase in assertiveness, a facet of extraversion Slight increase in agreeableness People can and do change but it is usually not radical  Neuroticism If you are high in neuroticism compared to others when you are young, you are likely to be high in neuroticism compared to others when you are older Source: Antonioguillem/Fotolia Changes in Self- Self-esteem increases slightly Esteem and between 20s and 60s and then decreases Narcissism from Young Adulthood to Studies suggest narcissism declines with age Old Age  Brent Roberts’s social Significant Life investment theory: Personalities mature as young Experiences & people enter important adult social roles Social Adult responsibilities and relationships cause maturity Investment Maturation of personality Theory More conscientiousness, more agreeableness, and less neuroticism Through stable relationships and steady work Figure 9.6 Age Differences in Language Use on Facebook This study based on more than 70,000 people shows the changes in social roles that lead to the maturation of personality. Interests shift from studying and partying to work to family relationships as people move from adolescence to mature adulthood. SOURCE: Based on Schwartz, H. A., Eichstaedt, J. C., Kern, M. L., Dziurzynski, L., Ramones, S. M., Agarwal, M., Shah, A., Kosinski, M., Stillwell, D., Seligman, M. E. P., & Ungar, L. H. (2013). Personality, gender, and age in the language of social media: The open-vocabulary approach. Plos One, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0073791. Benefits of Entering the Full-Time Workforce Increase in conscientiousness Working for those who work rather than go to college Young people are taking longer to begin serious careers and families New life stage called emerging adulthood between adolescence and adulthood michaeljung/Fotolia Relationships Young adults in long-term romantic relationships ✓ Increase in conscientiousness ✓ Decrease in neuroticism ✓ Increase in self-esteem Similar pattern for older people AZP Worldwide/Fotolia  Table 9.2 Erikson’s Life Stages Age Central Conflict Common Personality Developments Infancy (0 to 1-1/2 years) Trust versus mistrust Developing trust in caregivers Early childhood (1-1/2 to 3 Autonomy versus shame Learning independence years) Preschool (3 to 5) Initiative versus guilt Learning on your own School age (5 to 12) Industry versus inferiority Feeling competent Adolescence (12 to 18) Ego identity versus role Learning who you are and confusion forming an identity Young adulthood (18 to 40) Intimacy versus isolation Developing meaningful adult relationships Middle adulthood (40 to 65) Generativity versus Nurturing children and/or stagnation contributing to society Older adulthood (65+) Ego integrity versus despair Preserving identity as roles change with old age Parenthood Adults with two or more children increase in neuroticism over time Becoming a father magnifies preexisting tendencies in men’s sociability Few differences in personality traits during parenthood Pixabay.com  Different people respond in Negative & different ways Positive Life Personality traits can predict experiences Experiences The effect of events partially depends on your perception Negative experiences have a negligible effect on personality Personality traits are more likely to predict life events than the other way around  Personality is a significant How predictor of important life outcomes Personality Even subtle correlates of Predicts Life personality can predict life outcomes Outcomes For example, smiling How is smiling correlated with better life outcomes? Pixabay.com Gender, Culture & Personality Sex vs. Gender ▪ Sex ▪ A biological division of males and females based on chromosomes, genitals, and secondary sexual characteristics ▪ Gender ▪ Roles and behaviours attributed to a particular sex ▪ Cisgender, transgender, non-binary, gender fluid ▪ Sex differences ▪ Average differences between males and females Origins of Gender Roles ▪ Some gender roles are clearly cultural ▪ Clothing, hairstyles, jewelry Pixabay.com ▪ Other gender roles appear universal ▪ Greater aggression in males; more caregiving in females Sex Differences Sex differences often change as cultures change ▪ For example, growth of women’s education and careers; increase in men’s family caregiving roles Pixabay.com Sex Differences Big 5; Leadership; Occupations & Hobbies; Interests; Appearance; Nonverbal Behaviours; Self-Esteem; Cognitive Abilities; Sexual Attitudes/Behaviours Big Five Comparisons ▪ Big Five Personality Traits ▪ Women higher in neuroticism and agreeableness ▪ Women slightly higher in extraversion and conscientiousness ▪ Women slightly lower in openness ▪ Depends on the sample and measure ▪ Gender differences between facets of the Big Five Leadership ▪ Women perform slightly better as leaders in most areas ▪ Men rate themselves as better leaders ▪ Others (peers, employees, bosses) rate women as better leaders ▪ However, women still hold fewer higher status positions than men Occupations & Hobbies ▪ Preferences for occupations and hobbies among men and women produce a large sex difference ▪ Men more interested in things and women in people ▪ Seen in typically male and female professions ▪ Depends on context and feeling welcome in a certain environment Pixabay.com Interests ▪ Sex difference in interests begins early ▪ Shaped by both biology and culture Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock ▪ Larger sex difference in female interests and activities than in male’s ▪ Both males and females can do male things, but only females are supposed to do female things ▪ Toys marketed for both boys and girls are similar in colour to those aimed at boys, while pink is only for girls Sexual Behaviour & Attitudes ▪ Men are more likely to want to have sex with someone they just met ▪ Men are more approving of casual sex ▪ Men report stronger sex drive and a desire for greater sexual frequency ▪ In a recent meta-analysis, the largest sex difference was consumption of pornography  Cultural Differences Pixabay.com Culture ▪ Customs, values, and behaviours characteristic of a nation, ethnic group, class, group or time period ▪ Different cultures have different social norms ▪ Rules for behaviour within a society Biological & Cultural Interplay ▪ Children learn gender and social norms of their culture through socialization ▪ Cross-cultural differences ▪ Variations based on country or world region ▪ May arise from geography ▪ Terrain, climate, and other environmental characteristics ▪ What else? How Cultures Shape People Cultural differences often viewed in terms of people Can also be seen in cultural products Pixabay.com Cultural Differences Individualism Collectivism  The Mutual Constitution Model Figure 11.1 Based on Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (2010). Cultures and selves: A cycle of mutual constitution. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 420–430. Cultural Differences in Attributions ▪ Internal attribution ▪ External attribution Pixabay.com Differences in Views of Self Positive Self-Views ▪ Individualistic and collectivistic cultures differ in how much they encourage self-enhancement ▪ Unrealistically positive views of self and personal abilities ▪ Westerners are more likely than East Asians to focus on their positive aspects and have higher self-esteem ▪ Asian cultures depend more on others’ approval Self vs. Other ▪ Cross-cultural and over-time differences in self-focus may be caused by relational mobility ▪ How easy it is to move in and out of relationships ▪ In collectivistic cultures, dating and divorce are rare and family relationships are tightly enmeshed ▪ Focusing on oneself has few benefits but several costs ▪ In individualistic cultures, relationships are more fluid ▪ Focusing on oneself gives the confidence to form new relationships  Approach vs. Avoidance Motivation ▪ Cross-cultural differences in approach versus avoidance ▪ Focus on attaining success versus avoiding failure ▪ East Asians are motivated more by avoidance ferrantraite/E+/Getty Images ▪ See losing as an opportunity Context Matters! ▪ People from individualistic cultures may find personality more useful and relevant ▪ People from collectivistic cultures believe that roles or duties describe people better than personality traits ▪ Behaviour differs depending on the situation ▪ Personality is less consistent Cultural Differences and the Big Five ▪ Extraversion is linked to cultural individualism ▪ Norway, Switzerland, Austria, Canada, and the United States ranked high in extraversion ▪ Taiwan, Malaysia, and Zimbabwe ranked low ▪ High-extraversion countries are more economically prosperous and have more liberal views of sexuality ▪ Extraversion has increased over the generations ▪ Especially the subfacet of dominance Agreeableness ▪ Canadians and Americans rate themselves similarly, but outsiders rate Canadians as more agreeable ▪ People in Greece, Congo, and Jordan self-report being highest ▪ Those in Argentina, Ukraine, and Japan rate themselves lowest ▪ Collectivistic countries feel more empathy and therefore have higher agreeableness Conscientiousness ▪ People from more southern latitudes score higher than those from more northern latitudes ▪ People in Ethiopia, Zimbabwe, and Tanzania self-report being highest ▪ Those in Japan, Germany, and South Korea rate themselves lowest Pixabay.com Neuroticism ▪ Japan is highest in neuroticism ▪ Also, Russia, France, Spain, and Belgium ▪ Low-neuroticism countries include Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Indonesia ▪ In another study, high-neuroticism countries were Argentina, Japan, and Spain, and low-neuroticism countries were the Congo, Slovenia, and Ethiopia Openness to Experience ▪ People in Chile, Belgium, and Bangladesh self-report being highest ▪ People in Ukraine and Japan are lowest ▪ Lower in more recent generations ▪ General shift toward extrinsic values **Few studies have examined differences in openness to experience  Personality and Relationships Attachment: Setting the Foundation ▪ Childhood Attachment ▪ First relationships are with parents/caregivers, which set the stage for later relationships ▪ Attachment ▪ Link between a child and primary caregiver ▪ Caregiver provides security and protection, called a secure base Lena S./Fotolia Attachment Relationships ▪ Attachment theory ▪ Explores how early experiences shape personalities and adult relationships ▪ First proposed by John Bowlby in 1969 ▪ Children’s attachment experiences eventually become internalized ▪ Part of the child’s personality Attachment Theory ▪ With emotionally warm and reliable caregiver, children view relationships as stable and secure ▪ With cold and unsupportive caregiver, children develop a negative view of relationships ▪ Applies to all mammals Photo Researchers, Inc./Science Source Attachment Styles ▪ Way an individual attaches or relates to others ▪ Based on relationship with parents/caregivers ▪ Children develop the attachment style best suited for their situations ▪ Problems arise when a child uses a developed style in a different environment Secure Anxious Avoidant Disorganized Strange Situation Used to test attachment in young children that involves separation from a parent Almost all babies cry or look upset when mothers leave, but differ in how they react when mothers return ▪ Securely attached babies smile and look happy ▪ Anxious babies keep crying and are difficult to comfort ▪ Avoidant babies look away and refuse to acknowledge mother Attachment in Adult Relationships Early attachment experiences with caregivers predict attachment later in life Childhood attachment styles shape adult romantic relationships ▪ Avoidant men are less likely to seek physical contact ▪ Anxious men and women are more likely to be upset when separated from partners Pixabay.com  Table 13.1 The Dimensional Model of Attachment Avoidance View of others: View of others: Positive (low Negative (high avoidance) avoidance) View of self: Positive (low Secure Dismissing anxiety) Anxiety View of self: Negative (high Preoccupied Fearful anxiety) People Need People! ▪ Social connection is a double-edged sword (Marlon Gonzalez) ▪ Our nervous system is shaped for the expectation of social connection as a means of solving the problems of living ▪ Our nervous system is sensitive to mere social presence Attachment & The Big Five Adults high in anxious attachment have: ▪ High neuroticism ▪ Low conscientiousness Adults high in avoidant attachment have: ▪ Low extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness A stable, positive relationship can increase attachment security The Big Five & Relationship Outcomes ▪ Some partner personality traits lead to more relationship satisfaction ▪ High extraversion ▪ Good at forming relationships ▪ More satisfied in relationships ▪ Maintain numerous relationships ▪ More shallow and less involved relationships ▪ High agreeableness ▪ Positive, satisfying relationships The Big Five & Relationship Outcomes ▪ High neuroticism ▪ Troubled, unstable relationships ▪ Cause problems for their partners ▪ High conscientiousness ▪ Experience less conflict (including violence) ▪ High openness to experience ▪ Self-expansion ▪ More likely to explore new relationship experiences Three Positive Forces in Relationships Empathy Compassion Self-Control  Three Negative Forces Psychopathy Narcissism Machiavellianism Attachment Wounds The Dark Triad in Relationships The Dark Triad Relationship behaviours Willing to exploit others May be “players” Engaging in short-term relationships even when their partners desire a longer-term relationship More likely to engage in mate-poaching Stealing someone else’s partner The Dark Triad Fake physical attractiveness Enhance appearance to appear more attractive Szasz-Fabian Jozsef/Fotolia (cake) Useful for forming sexual relationships Enabled them to be passed down through the generations Short-term relationships filled with drama Personality and Social Networking ▪ People’s personality on Facebook looks like their real-life personality ▪ Although some neuroticism is hidden ▪ Initial impressions based on Facebook profiles is like impressions when meeting in real life ▪ People who self-enhance offline also self-enhance online ▪ Make profile look good Social Media ▪ Certain traits adapt well to social media ▪ High extraversion and openness to experience ▪ Narcissists have more friends ▪ Extraverts and narcissists take and post the most selfies Pixabay.com The Cognitive Perspective  ▪ Rests on the assumption that people integrate and organize bits of information ▪ Also on the assumption that life involves Overview many decisions, most of which occur outside of consciousness ▪ Mental models Schemas “Librarian” Pixbay.com  ▪ “Schemas are relatively enduring internal structures of stored generic or prototypical features of stimuli, ideas, or Schema experiences that are used to organize Defined new information in a meaningful way thereby determining how phenomena are perceived and conceptualized” (Clark & Beck, 1999, p. 79).  Include: ▪ Perceptual images ▪ General knowledge Schemas ▪ Abstract knowledge ▪ Core beliefs ▪ Emotional qualities ▪ Information about sequence  ▪ Facilitate intake of new information Effects of Fill in gaps Schemas Pixabay.com  Prototype Ex: a group of characteristics that define extraversion Script-based Ex: a restaurant script Knowledge Life story Ex: biographical self-description Structures Relationship Ex: how to make friends Roles Ex: student, son  SOCIALLY RELEVANT SCHEMAS ▪ Examples: gender roles, types of social relations, emotions Schemas SELF-SCHEMAS ▪ More complex than other schemas ▪ More emotion  Organization of schemas Memories form networks organized in nodes Linked by logical connection Activation of Information is conscious when the Memories relevant memory node is activated Related nodes become partially activated  Priming Purposely activating a node Activation of Memories Primes influence actions  ▪ Subliminal primes Primes presented outside of awareness Primes don’t have to reach Nonconscious consciousness to work Influences on Behaviour Have similar effects to conscious primes but maybe under limited circumstances  Cognitive unconscious ▪ Consciousness as a workspace to consider information and make judgments Routine behaviors require less attention Cognitive vs. and no longer need consciousness over Psychodynamic time Very different from psychodynamic explanation of the unconscious  Connectionism Also called parallel distributed processing and neural networks Neuronal processes as a metaphor for Connectionist cognition View of Mental Representations are not centralized, but Organization are a pattern of activation Patterns are updated repeatedly until they settle Sometimes networks reorganize abruptly  Epstein’s cognitive-experiential self-theory Rational system is slow, logical, and conscious Experiential system is intuitive, mostly nonconscious, fast, and relies on shortcuts Dual Process Links with other theories Models “Hot” system is emotional, impulsive, reflexive, and connectionist “Cool” system is strategic, flexible, slower, and unemotional  Explicit Implicit Knowledge Knowledge Broader Perspectives  ▪ Mischel and Shoda (1995) Cognitive- ▪ Developed as an alternative to trait Affective theories Processing System ▪ CAPS values context  Name reflects the role of emotion in cognitive processing Cognitive- If … then principle Affective Conditional quality Processing System People use hedges which reflects conditional thinking about self and others  Types of Cognitive-Affective Units Cognitive- Encodings Affective Expectations and beliefs Processing System Affect Goals Competencies and self-regulatory plans  Level 1 Cognitive-affective units (CAU) Level 2 Behavioural expressions Five Levels of Level 3 Observer’s perceptions Level 4 Situations Analysis Level 5 Biosocial pre-dispositions  ▪ Level 1 – questioning my ability, competence ▪ Level 2 – behavioural withdrawal (skip class, not answering texts) ▪ Level 3 – friend (observer) notices I’m snappy and not Example listening. Labels me as over-reactive or insecure ▪ Level 4 – friend is frustrated with my behaviours, criticizes me “get over it”. This feedback makes me feel I failed an exam  unsupported ▪ Level 5 – many variables at play (age, gender, genetics, culture) influence how I interact with my friend or how I interpret/respond to any of the following (level 3, 4, 1)  Think-aloud protocols Experience sampling Assessment from the Cognitive Event-recording Perspective Contextualized assessment  Deficits in basic cognitive processes Problems in & Behaviour & Problems with attention Behaviour Change Pixabay.com  Automatic thoughts Inaccurate or distorted schemas are applied automatically Negative feelings that result lead to further use of negative schemas Depressive Self- Cognitive triad Schemas Overgeneralize from one bad outcome to overall self-worth Arbitrary inferences to negative conclusions Catastrophize problems and bad outcomes  CRITICISM Simply a transplantation of cognitive psychology onto the subject of personality Cognitive Perspective RESPONSE Cognitive viewpoint is part of a broad attempt to understand the mind Can’t help but be revealing about personality  ▪ Cognitive perspective focuses on how people process information ▪ Dual-process theories can help us understand symbolic and connectionist approaches ▪ If … then profiles are informative about personality Summary ▪ Cognitive assessment is understanding the contents and organization of thoughts ▪ Problems can come from information processing deficits Phobias Pixabay.com