Podcast
Questions and Answers
How do individualistic and collectivistic cultures primarily differ in relation to self-views?
How do individualistic and collectivistic cultures primarily differ in relation to self-views?
What aspect influences the differences in self-focus between individualistic and collectivistic cultures?
What aspect influences the differences in self-focus between individualistic and collectivistic cultures?
Which motivation is more prevalent in East Asian cultures compared to Western cultures?
Which motivation is more prevalent in East Asian cultures compared to Western cultures?
In what way do collectivistic cultures differ in terms of relationship stability?
In what way do collectivistic cultures differ in terms of relationship stability?
Signup and view all the answers
How does cultural context influence views on success and failure?
How does cultural context influence views on success and failure?
Signup and view all the answers
What personality trait tends to increase as individuals move into old age?
What personality trait tends to increase as individuals move into old age?
Signup and view all the answers
Which birth order is typically associated with being more dominant and bossy?
Which birth order is typically associated with being more dominant and bossy?
Signup and view all the answers
What change typically occurs in self-esteem from young adulthood through old age?
What change typically occurs in self-esteem from young adulthood through old age?
Signup and view all the answers
According to the social investment theory, what facilitates the maturation of personality in young adults?
According to the social investment theory, what facilitates the maturation of personality in young adults?
Signup and view all the answers
Which birth order is generally linked to higher levels of agreeableness?
Which birth order is generally linked to higher levels of agreeableness?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the expected trend for neuroticism from young adulthood to old age?
What is the expected trend for neuroticism from young adulthood to old age?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement about narcissism as individuals age is accurate?
Which statement about narcissism as individuals age is accurate?
Signup and view all the answers
How does the personality of individuals generally change as they enter adulthood?
How does the personality of individuals generally change as they enter adulthood?
Signup and view all the answers
What personality trait is associated with adults who have high anxious attachment?
What personality trait is associated with adults who have high anxious attachment?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following personality traits is likely to lead to more relationship satisfaction?
Which of the following personality traits is likely to lead to more relationship satisfaction?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a characteristic of individuals with high extraversion?
What is a characteristic of individuals with high extraversion?
Signup and view all the answers
Which negative force is characterized by a lack of empathy and exploitation of others in relationships?
Which negative force is characterized by a lack of empathy and exploitation of others in relationships?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a common behavior associated with the Dark Triad personality traits?
What is a common behavior associated with the Dark Triad personality traits?
Signup and view all the answers
Which trait is generally less visible in social media profiles compared to real-life interactions?
Which trait is generally less visible in social media profiles compared to real-life interactions?
Signup and view all the answers
What effect does high openness to experience have on relationship outcomes?
What effect does high openness to experience have on relationship outcomes?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following best describes schemas?
Which of the following best describes schemas?
Signup and view all the answers
What personality trait is linked to adults with avoidant attachment?
What personality trait is linked to adults with avoidant attachment?
Signup and view all the answers
What benefit do stable, positive relationships provide according to attachment theory?
What benefit do stable, positive relationships provide according to attachment theory?
Signup and view all the answers
In which type of culture is personality considered more relevant?
In which type of culture is personality considered more relevant?
Signup and view all the answers
Which country is ranked high in extraversion?
Which country is ranked high in extraversion?
Signup and view all the answers
People in which country self-report the highest agreeableness?
People in which country self-report the highest agreeableness?
Signup and view all the answers
Which factor influences higher conscientiousness in people?
Which factor influences higher conscientiousness in people?
Signup and view all the answers
Which country is noted for scoring highest in neuroticism?
Which country is noted for scoring highest in neuroticism?
Signup and view all the answers
Which region's population tends to report lower openness to experience?
Which region's population tends to report lower openness to experience?
Signup and view all the answers
Attachment theory was first proposed by which psychologist?
Attachment theory was first proposed by which psychologist?
Signup and view all the answers
Which attachment style is characterized by a negative view of relationships?
Which attachment style is characterized by a negative view of relationships?
Signup and view all the answers
How do securely attached babies react when their mothers return in the Strange Situation?
How do securely attached babies react when their mothers return in the Strange Situation?
Signup and view all the answers
Anxious individuals in adult relationships are likely to feel upset when?
Anxious individuals in adult relationships are likely to feel upset when?
Signup and view all the answers
In the Dimensional Model of Attachment, what type of attachment is characterized by a positive view of self and others?
In the Dimensional Model of Attachment, what type of attachment is characterized by a positive view of self and others?
Signup and view all the answers
Which attachment style is often associated with cold and unsupportive caregivers?
Which attachment style is often associated with cold and unsupportive caregivers?
Signup and view all the answers
Which aspect of personality tends to increase across generations?
Which aspect of personality tends to increase across generations?
Signup and view all the answers
In which countries do people self-report the highest levels of conscientiousness?
In which countries do people self-report the highest levels of conscientiousness?
Signup and view all the answers
Which characteristic is common in collectivistic cultures regarding personality traits?
Which characteristic is common in collectivistic cultures regarding personality traits?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a significant factor that influences how an individual interacts with friends according to the cognitive perspective?
What is a significant factor that influences how an individual interacts with friends according to the cognitive perspective?
Signup and view all the answers
What term describes the automatic application of distorted schemas leading to negative emotions?
What term describes the automatic application of distorted schemas leading to negative emotions?
Signup and view all the answers
How does the cognitive triad affect an individual's perception of self-worth?
How does the cognitive triad affect an individual's perception of self-worth?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary focus of the cognitive perspective in psychology?
What is the primary focus of the cognitive perspective in psychology?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of assessment helps in understanding the organization of thoughts in cognitive psychology?
What type of assessment helps in understanding the organization of thoughts in cognitive psychology?
Signup and view all the answers
What common cognitive error involves making negative conclusions based on limited evidence?
What common cognitive error involves making negative conclusions based on limited evidence?
Signup and view all the answers
In cognitive theory, which model attempts to understand both symbolic and connectionist approaches?
In cognitive theory, which model attempts to understand both symbolic and connectionist approaches?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a common misconception regarding cognitive processes according to cognitive psychology?
What is a common misconception regarding cognitive processes according to cognitive psychology?
Signup and view all the answers
What does the connectionist view of mental organization suggest about representations?
What does the connectionist view of mental organization suggest about representations?
Signup and view all the answers
Which characteristic best describes the rational system in Epstein’s cognitive-experiential self-theory?
Which characteristic best describes the rational system in Epstein’s cognitive-experiential self-theory?
Signup and view all the answers
According to Mischel and Shoda's cognitive-affective processing system, what is a key principle they emphasize?
According to Mischel and Shoda's cognitive-affective processing system, what is a key principle they emphasize?
Signup and view all the answers
What level of analysis focuses on the observer’s perceptions according to the five levels of analysis?
What level of analysis focuses on the observer’s perceptions according to the five levels of analysis?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following components is NOT part of the cognitive-affective units in Mischel and Shoda's model?
Which of the following components is NOT part of the cognitive-affective units in Mischel and Shoda's model?
Signup and view all the answers
Which best describes the 'cool' system in dual process models?
Which best describes the 'cool' system in dual process models?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of knowledge is characterized as being predominantly conscious and factual?
What type of knowledge is characterized as being predominantly conscious and factual?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following represents a potential behavioral expression in a cognitive-affective processing system?
Which of the following represents a potential behavioral expression in a cognitive-affective processing system?
Signup and view all the answers
Study Notes
Learning and Behaviour
- Behaviourism focuses on observable behaviours, not internal mental processes
- Personality is shaped by social learning, observing others' behaviours
- Operant conditioning: shaping behaviour through rewards (positive reinforcement) or removal of aversive stimuli (negative reinforcement)
- Positive reinforcement: administering a reward after desirable behaviour
- Negative reinforcement: removing an unpleasant stimulus after a desirable behaviour
- Positive punishment: administering an unpleasant stimulus after undesirable behaviour
- Negative punishment: removing a desirable stimulus after undesirable behaviour
- Continuous reinforcement: rewarding every desired behaviour
- Partial reinforcement schedules: vary when a reward is given
- Four types of partial reinforcement schedules: fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval
- Social learning: learning by observing the rewards and punishments of others' behaviours
- Role models: individuals whose behaviours others observe and imitate
- Reciprocal determinism: behaviour, environment, and personality interact
- Operant conditioning in action: behaviour modification techniques used to improve behaviour
Behaviour Modification
- Techniques using operant conditioning to improve behaviour
- Reward only acceptable behaviour
- Effective for treating behaviour problems and psychological disorders
- Useful for changing typical behaviour
- Token economies: systems of rewards
- Behavioural activation: strategies designed to increase engagement in activities
Breaking Bad Habits
- Using behaviour modification on yourself
- Change your own habits
How Far Can Behaviour Modification Go?
- Born with tendencies but our environment shapes our behaviour
- Rewards and punishments shape behaviour
- Reciprocal determinism plays a significant role
Expectancies
- What someone expects to happen, based on past experience
- Involve thoughts and contemplation
- Decisions based on reinforcement value
- Enticing rewards influence choices
Locus of Control
- Internal: individuals feel they are in control of their outcomes
- External: individuals attribute their outcomes to external factors
Classical Conditioning
- Associating two things not normally associated
- Pavlov's experiments with feeding dogs
- Basic elements: Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS), Unconditioned Response (UCR), Conditioned Stimulus (CS), Conditioned Response (CR)
- UCS produces UCR, CS paired with UCS triggers CR
Classical Conditioning and Fear
- Conditioned responses can be generalised to similar stimuli
- Deconditioning is reversing learned fear responses
- Discrimination can help narrow fear to specific stimuli
- Spontaneous recovery: learning it again
Habituation
- Getting used to something in the environment and not responding as strongly anymore
Sleep Conditioning
- Use classical conditioning to sleep better
Personality Across the Lifespan
- Is personality stable throughout life?
- Methods for measuring personality over time (longitudinal study, cross-sectional study)
- Personality stability and change:
- Personality traits increase significantly through early life
- Reaching a plateau in young adulthood
- Stability coincides with maturity
- Little evidence for increasing rank-order stability after 25
- Mean-level trait changes slightly smaller
- Emotional stability increases continuously
- Narrow facet level and maladaptive measures less stable, broader domain and adaptive measures more stable
Personality During Childhood and Adolescence
- Child temperament: genetically based behavioural tendencies
- With age, temperament solidifies into personality
- Follows physical development
- Temperament styles: motor/motivational (activity, rhythmicity, approach ability), cognitive (distractibility, attention), emotional (reactivity, mood)
- The Big Five constructs and corresponding child temperament constructs
- Does temperament predict personality?
- Childhood temperament can sometimes predict adult personality
- Undercontrolled children are more likely to abuse alcohol and drugs
Changes in Big Five Personality Traits
- Childhood: maturity in controlling emotions, becoming more inhibited
- Adolescence: increased understanding (openness), increasing conscientiousness and agreeableness
Changes in Self-Esteem
- Self-esteem changes moderately during elementary school
- Self-esteem dips during early teen years, then increases during high school and young adulthood
- Girls' self-esteem doesn't increase as fast as boys'
Tasks of Adolescence
- Acquiring a temporal perspective
- Acquiring self-certainty
- Role experimentation
- Apprenticeship
- Sexual polarization
- Questions of authority
- Ideological commitment
Developmental Trajectories of Big Five Personality Traits
- Individual differences in adolescent personality related to various long-term health outcomes
- Sex differences and non-linear changes in personality development
- Examined using longitudinal data
- Associations between substance use and personality
Stages of the Life Span
- Stages from infancy to older adulthood
Birth Order
- Firstborns: higher conscientiousness and neuroticism, more dominant
- Middleborns: lower conscientiousness
- Youngers: higher openness, more reckless
- Only children: higher agreeableness, better relationships with parents
Young Adulthood to Old Age
- Personalities are mellowed by adulthood
- Less neuroticism and greater conscientiousness
- Neuroticism declines
- Slight increase in assertiveness and agreeableness
- Personal changes are not radical
Neuroticism
- High neuroticism in youth correlates with high neuroticism in older age
Changes in Self-Esteem and Narcissism
- Self-esteem slightly increases in 20s-60s, then decreases
- Narcissism declines with age
Significant Life Experiences & Social Investment Theory
- Personalities mature as young people enter important adult social roles
- Adult responsibilities and relationships cause maturity
- Maturation of personality involves conscientiousness, agreeableness, and reduced neuroticism.
Age Differences in Language Use on Facebook
- Study based on over 70,000 people
- Shows changes in social roles and maturation of personality
- Interests shift from studying and partying to work and family relationships
Benefits of Working
- Entering the workforce increases conscientiousness
- Young people are taking longer to begin serious careers and families
- A new life stage called emerging adulthood
Relationships
- Increased conscientiousness and agreeableness among young adults in long-term romantic relationships
- Decrease in neuroticism
- Self-esteem increases as well
Erikson's Life Stages
- Stages of Development (Infancy, Early Childhood, Preschool, School Age, Adolescence, Young Adulthood, Middle Adulthood, Older Adulthood) with their associated conflicts and developments
Parenthood
- Adults with more children may exhibit increased neuroticism
- Becoming a father can magnify existing tendencies in men's sociability
- Few differences in personality traits during parenthood
Negative & Positive Life Experiences
- Different people respond in different ways to positive and negative experiences
- Personality traits can predict life experiences (but not vice-versa)
- Negative experiences have a negligible effect on personality
How Personality Predicts Life Outcomes
- Personality is a significant predictor of life outcomes, even subtle correlations predict various outcomes
- Example: smiling correlating with better life outcomes
Gender, Culture & Personality
- Sex: biological division
- Gender: roles and behaviours
- Sex differences: average differences between sexes
- Origins of gender roles: some are cultural (clothing), some appear universal (aggression, caregiving)
- Cultural changes can influence sex differences
- Sex differences in Big 5 personality traits
- Big 5 personality comparisons and sex differences
Leadership, Occupations & Hobbies, Sexual Attitudes & Behaviors, Cultural Differences
- Women often perform slightly better as leaders, but men rate themselves higher
- Men and women have different preferences for occupations and hobbies, as are their sexual attitudes and behaviors
- Cultural differences exist in these areas
Cultural Differences in Attributions, Self-Views, Cross-Cultural Differences
- Cultural values vary greatly concerning how people rate themselves
- Varying cultural experiences cause different perceptions of success/failure
- Cross-cultural differences exist
- Differences in how individualistic or collectivistic cultures encourage self-enhancement
- Western self-views are more likely to focus on their positive aspects
- Asian cultures value others' opinions more
- Differences in how easy it is to move into and out of relationships
Approach vs. Avoidance Motivation
- Cultural differences in approach versus avoidance motivation
- Focus on attaining success versus avoiding failure
- East Asians more motivated by avoidance
Context Matters
- Personality is viewed more relevantly in individualistic cultures
- Roles and duties describe people better in collectivistic cultures
- Behavior varies based on the situation
Cultural Differences and the Big Five
- Extraversion is linked to cultural individualism
- Agreeableness is generally perceived to be higher in collectivistic cultures
- Conscientiousness is higher in southern latitudes, neuroticism is higher in Asian countries
Symbolic and Connectionist Approaches
Cognitive-Affective Processing System
- A system that is influenced by the emotional content of individuals' experiences
- Takes contexts into account when evaluating and understanding actions
- If...then principle: a conditional quality, which reflects conditional thinking about self and others
- Types of cognitive-affective units (encoding, expectation, beliefs, affect, goals, competencies, self-regulatory plans)
- Five levels of analysis (CAUs, behavioral expression, observer perceptions, situation, biosocial pre-dispositions)
Assessment Perspectives
- Think-aloud protocols
- Experince sampling
- Event recording
- Contextual assessment
- Understanding deficits in basic cognitive processes, issues with attention
Depressive Self-Schemas
- Automatic negative thoughts: inaccurate or distorted schemas applied automatically, resulting in negative feelings
- Cognitive triad: overgeneralizing from one bad outcome to overall self-worth/negative expectations, arbitrary inferences to negative conclusions, catastrophizing problems
Criticism and Response
- Criticism of cognitive psychology: simply a transplantation of cognitive psychology onto the area of personality
- Response: an attempt to understand the human mind and behaviour and a broader way of understanding personality and it provides more tools for understanding behaviour
Summary of Cognitive Perspectives
- Cognitive perspective focuses on how people process information
- Dual process theories can help us understand symbolic and connectionist approaches
- Cognitive assessment = understanding contents/organization of thoughts
- Problems from cognitive information processing issues
Phobias
Studying That Suits You
Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.
Related Documents
Description
Test your knowledge on cultural psychology and personality development as discussed in Chapter 4. This quiz covers topics such as self-views in individualistic and collectivistic cultures, motivations in different cultural contexts, and personality traits across the lifespan. Challenge yourself with these thought-provoking questions!
