Behaviour Modification PDF

1: Intro to Behaviour Modification Behaviour Behaviourism ​ Considers overt (external) actions only -​ Observable and measurable -​ Behaviour is the product of reactions to stimuli in environment ​ Behavior defined as “Anything a person or other animal does that can be measur...

1: Intro to Behaviour Modification Behaviour Behaviourism ​ Considers overt (external) actions only -​ Observable and measurable -​ Behaviour is the product of reactions to stimuli in environment ​ Behavior defined as “Anything a person or other animal does that can be measured” by BF Skinner -​ Claimed operant conditioning is all we need to understand all behaviour Cognitivism ​ Considers both overt and covert (internal) actions ​ Opposite end of spectrum from behaviourism ​ How do the material and immaterial interact? Defining Behaviour ​ Behaviour involves action and is described through verbs; it is not a static ✅ characteristic ❌ -​ ie.) Yell, cry → Angry, sad → → may explain why behaviour is occurring ​ Behavior has measurable Dimensions -​ Frequency → number of times a behaviour occurs ie.) ty hits on julia eight times -​ Intensity → the strength of the occurring behavior ​ Usually only in situations where force is used ie.) carmille applies a grip strength of 100kg -​ Duration → length of time a behaviour continuously occurs for ie.) daphne cries for three hours -​ Latency → length of time until a behavior starts to occur ie.) angie waits five minutes after her alarm goes off to get up ​ Pay attention to given target behaviour -​ These dimensions are helpful for determining our baseline → where/at what levels the original behaviour occurs. In modification, we can compare our baseline dimensions to our “new” dimensions to see if there has been a change. ​ Behaviour can be observed, described, and recorded -​ An observer can detect when an action occurs, and then describe and record the occurrence ​ Impacts both the physical and social environment (hitting a tree vs. yelling and people hear you) -​ Occurs in time and space, creating an effect on the environment and which it occurs  -​Effect can be obvious or nonobvious ​ ie.) making someone cry vs. changing how they think ​ Overt and Covert Behaviour -​ Overt behaviour → obvious external occurrence which impacts physical environment -​ Covert behaviour → hidden internal occurrence which impacts only the person engaging in the behaviour ​ Behaviour is lawful, often following predictable rules -​ Environmental factors affect behaviour in relatively consistent ways -​ Lawfulness allows for the understanding, prediction, and modification of behaviour in a given system Behaviour Modification ​ The field of psychology concerned with analyzing, understanding and modifying behavior -​ Aims to explain: ​ What caused an individual to behave a certain way -​ ie.) environment, past circumstances ​ How we can make a behavioural change (see an increase or decrease in the given behavior) -​ Sometimes by changing environment rather than changing behaviour itself -​ Procedures are based on principles of behaviourism ​ Experimental Analysis of Behaviour (behaviour analysis): The scientific study of behaviour -​ Developed from Skinner’s experimental research -​ Can we understand it? ​ Applied Behaviour Analysis (Behaviour Modification): The scientific study of behaviour to help change that behaviour (specifically human behaviour) -​ Using our understanding from experimental analysis, can we change it? -​ Focuses on behaviour rather than personal characteristics or traits ​ Target behaviour: behaviour we want to change -​ Behavioural excess: undesirable behaviour we want to decrease ​ Works best by increasing a different desirable behaviour ie.) giving kids colouring books to decrease physical fights (target behaviour) -​ Behavioural deficit: desirable behaviour we want to increase -​ Procedures should be clear and detailed in description -​ Measure short and long term behaviour ​ What is our baseline (before treatment)  ​ Measurements taken after (has behaviour changed at all?) ​ Measurements taken long after (has change been sustained or has behaviour reverted?) -​ Treatment implemented by nonprofessionals ie.) School teachers are instructed to modify a student’s poor behaviour despite not being a trained psychologist ​ Can escalate or worsen behaviour ie.) Parents attempting to end a child’s whining in the grocery store → not giving them chocolate will either shut them up or push them to throw a tantrum -​ Emphasis on current environmental events rather than past occurrences ​ We are not wondering what has occurred in their distant past or how they function cognitively ​ Focus on what comes right before (antecedents) and right after (consequences) → ABC train ​ Once identified, controlling variables are altered to change the relationship between them and the behaviour -​ Controlling variables: AKA controlling stimuli (situation or object present in the environment that influences behaviour) ie.) delivery of food can be a stimulus or consequence, red light can be seen as an antecedent or stimulus -​ Rejects hypothetical underlying causes of behaviour ​ Disregard of internal explanation or causes when there is an observable and measurable explanation occurring externally History of Behaviour Modification Timeline Early squad establishes the field of behaviourism and its important concepts → Transition from nonhuman animal research to more human based studies → Transition from experimental approaches to applied and practical uses of behaviourism → Functional assessment procedures and treatments are developed and refined Edward Thorndike ​ 1911 “Animal Intelligence” ​ Comparative psychologist → examined problem solving abilities in nonhuman animals -​ At the time, we were interested in human problem solving and our “moment of insight” → if this is the case, animals should exhibit this light bulb moment too ie.) Randomly developing an essay thesis you’ve been struggling to come up with all day while taking a bath ​ Law of Effect (developed from puzzle box experiment) -​ If a response is followed by a satisfying event, the S-R connection is strengthened ie.) Escaping the box is a satisfying event, actions which came before escaping became more likely to occur in the future  -​ If a response is followed by a unsatisfying event, the S-R connection is weakened ie.) As the cats undertake actions that do not produce the satisfying event of escape, they stop these actions, slowly gaining improvement through experience ​ Puzzle boxes -​ Cats were required to perform a series of actions (pressing levers, pulling strings, etc.) in order to escape. -​ MOI would demonstrate a sudden change in ability to escape consistently ​ Rather than insight, cats demonstrated a gradual increase in their ability to escape (incremental learning) ​ Situation is the same as an antecedent, whereas our response is equivalent to a behaviour ​ Consequences of an individual’s behaviour is important only because it strengthens or weakens the link between a situation and response ​ “We care about the early stuff” John B. Watson ​ 1924 “Behaviourism” ​ Established behaviourism movement → father of behaviourism ​ There is no way to objectively quantify or study internal cognitive processes, therefore psychology should focus only on observable behaviour ​ Stimulus-response psychology -​ Environmental events (aka stimuli, situation, etc.) will elicit specific responses ​ S-R association turns into S-R psychology focusing on stimuli that focus on behavioural responses Pavlov ​ 1927 “Conditioned Reflexes” ​ Classical, Respondent conditioning -​ OG behaviour is “transferred” to a new stimulus through association with OG stimulus ie.) Food (US) results in salivation (UR) → pairing a bell (NS) with food (US) will eventually result in salivation (UR) becoming a (CR) and our bell becoming a (CS) → in which dogs will now salivate simply at the sound of the bell ​ Focusing on reflexive behaviours (specific applications of S-R psychology) B.F Skinner ​ 1930s-1940s dominant ​ Established behaviour modification through his expansion on behaviourism through the use of Skinner boxes and nonhuman animal research  ​ 1938 “Behaviour of Organisms” ​ Operant conditioning -​ Consequences of a behaviour determine the future occurrence of that behaviour -​ We need to prioritize the outcome following a response --> our behaviours are influenced by association with a consequence -​ Consequences will either increase or decrease the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again ie.) chickadees hopping into a feeder at the right time will provide them with food; increases the likelihood that they will hop into the feeder ​ Strays from Thorndike, Watson, and Pavlov in the idea that we are no longer focused on antecedents Applied Behaviour Analysis ​ Introduced by Woolf, Baer, and Risley in 1968 ​ Socially important/expectable behaviour → the way in which we interact with each other; can we change behaviours that are interfering with someone’s abilities to connect with those around them, can we bring their behaviour more inline with social norms ​ Basic behaviourism (S-R and ABCs) approach applied to human behaviour ​ Clear description of procedures ​ Produce meaningful behaviour → does this have an impact on an individual’s life? ie.) ability to integrate into society improves ​ Produce generalizable behaviour → can a behavioural change be applied outside of the given controlled environment? ie.) feeling unafraid of heights in a therapist’s office should allow you to feel unafraid of heights when in the calgary tower ​ Produce long lasting behaviour Behaviour Assessment ​ Measuring a target behaviour in a given situation (ie. duration, when it occurs, etc.) -​ Trying to assess and quantify a behaviour in a given way ​ Useful before, during, and after implementation of treatment (behaviour modification) -​ Before to determine if treatment is necessary ie.) Is a child being disruptive everyday for weeks on end or did they have a few bad Friday afternoons? -​ Before to provide information to help choose best treatment for the situation -​ After to determine if treatment has been successful Indirect Assessment ​ Target behaviour is measured with interviews, questionnaires, likert scales, etc. after it has occurred ​ Relies on testimony and recall from the individual themself (self monitoring) or other people  ie.) recalling your experience from a week ago or asking Jae about what behaviour I engaged in over the past week -​ Salience may cause us to think an event occurred more recently or frequently than it actually did -​ We may under report events that we don’t notice ​ This can make testimonials biased, inaccurate, unreliable, or incomplete ​ Despite inaccuracies and inconsistencies, sometimes indirect assessment is our only option Direct Assessment ​ Target behaviour is measured as it occurs ​ Can be done through use of remote monitoring (ie. screen time app, camera, audio recording), self monitoring or other individuals -​ Not always practical (ie. it is easy to forget to turn on a timer) -​ Expensive -​ Time consuming -​ Observer effect/reactivity ​ Can provide a more accurate measure due to removing reliance on recall -​ We may not notice our own target behaviour → results in under reporting -​ Improperly trained outside observers may also miss target behaviour Self Monitoring ​ Individual observes their own target behaviour ​ Useful when -​ Outside observers are unavailable -​ Target behaviour is infrequent -​ Target behaviour does not occur in the presence of others ​ Solves some of the problems from direct assessment (ie. funding, relying on other individuals) but can produce biased or inaccurate results due to observer effect The Process 1.​ Defining target behaviour ​ Create an operational definition -​ States what we are measuring to track a behaviour and what “counts” as a measurement ie.) Measuring the “mouth wateringness” of food by salivation Definition: Number of milligrams of saliva absorbed by size X cotton balls placed in place X for time X -​ Should be practical and useful ie.) Babies will not let you stick cotton balls in the mouth → pick something you can measure consistently given your current situation -​ Should not reference internal states or cognitive processes -​ Must be precise, quantifiable, objective, and unambiguous  ​ Should be so solid that the study can be replicated in a separate ❌ environment simply by following it ie.) “Timmo has a temper tantrum” → subjective and ambiguous ✅ ie.) “Timmo produces vocal productions at X decibels for X seconds” 2.​ Determining how the target behaviour will be recorded ​ Who -​ Outside observers -​ Self monitoring -​ Remote monitoring ​ When -​ Consider some important questions ie.) Do you need to know how often it occurs or only if it occurs? Does it only happen in specific circumstances? Are observers only available at certain times? -​ Product Recording (Permanent Product Recording) ​ Recording outcomes that result from the behaviour rather than observing the behaviour itself ie.) submission of files on canvas implies you completed an assignment -​ Continuous vs. Sample/Discontinuous recording ​ Continuous → always watching for TB; every instance target behaviour occurs is documented during the observation period ie.) phone tracking screen time for the entirety of a day ​ Sample → only some instances TB occurs are documented -​ Percentage of intervals where behaviour occurred = scored intervals / total intervals -​ Interval → recording whether TB occurs within certain time intervals ​ Partial → occurs during any part of the interval ​ Whole → occurs during the entire interval ​ Frequency-Within → frequency of occurrences within an interval are recorded -​ Time Sample → observation period is divided into intervals but behaviour is only observed during part of each interval ​ Is behaviour occurring within a very specific window? ​ Periods of observation followed by periods without observation ​ Momentary time sample recording (MTS) → recording behaviour only if it occurs at the exact instant the interval ends  ie.) Teacher is required to check on a student every five minutes, they can look up at the specific time to “check” -​ Structured vs. Unstructured periods ​ Structured → involves planning and arranging for specific events to occur -​ Will behaviour X occur if event Y does? -​ Helpful if behaviour only occurs under specific conditions ​ Unstructured → observing behaviour as it occurs naturally without intervention -​ Produces standard baseline ​ Where -​ Natural environments ​ A more representative sample of target behaviour ​ More authentic ​ Harder to understand what is happening (triggers and consequences) -​ Events are constantly occurring in a natural environment due to lack of control, it is hard to identify what our causes and results are -​ Artificial environments ​ Controlled environment ​ Easier to manipulate specific variables therefore easier to understand what is happening Important Considerations ​ Reactivity -​ One way observation windows, waiting it out (ie. Jane Goodall), or participant observers (an observer who is typically in the natural environment) can be used to fix this ​ Interobserver agreement (IOA) -​ Two observers measure and record same target behaviour during the same observation period -​ These recordings are then compared and the percentage of agreement is calculated ​ We want to see if behaviour is being recorded consistently Error caused by: ​ Insufficient training ​ Poor operational definition Research Designs 1.​ Measure the dependent variable (target behaviour) 2.​ Manipulate the independent variable (environment/treatment)  3.​ Replicate → Can we return to baseline and achieve the same results? If so, this supports the idea that our treatment is what is causing the change 4.​ Make a functional claim (causal claim with limited data) ​ *Note: typically we use a sample size of one, which does not allow us to mak true causal claims (a true experiment requires comparison between two groups) A-B Design ​ One baseline (A) and one treatment (B) ​ Lacks replication, therefore not a true research design -​ Doesn’t demonstrate functional relationship → shows a change in behaviour following phase line but does not demonstrate that it is due to our treatment ie.) decrease in an individual’s smoking could be the result of a new years resolution ​ Used in clinical practice, self management projects, ethical concerns -​ Sometimes we don’t need to know why they behaviour is changing, we just care that it is ie.) we don’t really care for the cause of the decrease in smoking, we’re just glad that it’s occurring A-B-A-B Reversal Design ​ A single replication of (A) → (B) -​ After observing a change in behaviour, return to (A) to check if behaviour reverts to how it was before treatment -​ Reintroduce (B) to see if the behaviour changes again ​ Three points of change as opposed to one in the A-B design → allows us to make a functional claim -​ It is unlikely that three random events (ie. new years resolution example) occurred Multiple Baseline Designs Multiple Subjects ​ 2+ subjects with the same target behaviour ​ Different baseline lengths (treatment start time is staggered) ​ Allows us to make a functional claim -​ Staggered timing helps in determining whether or not change is triggered by an extraneous variable ​ Environmental/confounding factors should show same effect on subjects at the same time ​ We can apply this to situations with ethical concerns → each subject is an individual A-B Multiple Behaviours ​ 2+ behaviours of a singular subject  ​ Treatment is staggered across behaviours → same logic as “Multiple subjects” -​ Environmental/confounding factors should show similar effects on each behaviour around the same time if they are influencing the behavioural change Multiple Settings ​ 2+ settings of a singular subject and singular behaviour ​ Same logic applied as “Multiple subjects” and “Multiple behaviours” ​ If the same change in behaviour is witnessed across multiple settings, it suggests that the treatment is causing this change rather than an extraneous variable Alternating Treatment Design ​ (A) and (B) implemented on alternating sessions for the same amount of time -​ Very short windows, rapid cycling between phases ​ Should demonstrate a difference in behavior depending on the presence of treatment Changing Criterion Design ​ (A) followed by a long period of (B), in which (B) changes at increments throughout that period ie.) Decreasing caffeine intake → in which we begin with measuring a baseline, and set a new limit for caffeine consumption. With each session, we slowly decrease the amount of caffeine consumption permitted however it is overall still the same treatment -​ Demonstrates setting a new criterion ​ As behaviour follows each criterion set, this suggests that treatment is what drives the behavioural change Functional Assessment ​ In contrast to behavioural assessment (only focused on target behaviour), we are interested in the relationship between the behaviour and the environment it occurs in → what is causing a target behaviour to occur or not occur? ​ What in the environment is maintaining or halting a behaviour? ie.) biting your nails because you are sitting with your hands close to your face ie.) child crying in a supermarket because crying has previously resulted in them getting candy (consequence strengthening stimulus response relationship) Steps to Functional Assessment 1.​ Identify and define target behaviour(s) → can be multiple -​ A system is rarely just one behaviour -​ In terms of decreasing undesirable behaviour, it is ideal to have an alternative behaviour 2.​ Collect data → measurements made in relation to operational definition 3.​ Functional assessment → study the “system” as a whole -​ Assess the stimuli in the environment, the behaviour, patterns of antecedents, patterns of consequences, etc.  4.​ Implement functional treatment → after functional assessment has hypothesized what is causing the behaviour to be present/absent, we attempt to change the relationship ie.) the child cries and we decide not to give them candy (treatment is withholding the consequence → candy) 5.​ Evaluate effectiveness -​ Depending on the research design, replication may be used ie.) did the child stop crying? ​ If yes: continue with treatment ​ If no: was treatment implemented correctly? -​ Yes: Return to functional assessment → have we identified the right factor that is influencing this stimulus response relationship? ie.) perhaps attention is influencing the stimulus response relationship rather than candy -​ No: ie.) one parent still gives the crying child candy ​ Retrain staff and make adjustments to treatment Three Term Contingency (contingencies) ​ Contingency → establishes a set of rules ​ Multiple antecedents and consequences may be involved in influencing behaviour Stimulus: Response → Outcome Antecedent: Behaviour → Consequence ie.) strict vs. non strict parent will influence the likelihood of the child’s crying ie.) Julia with SYJJ → makes a funny hahah → SYJJ laughs Julia with Liliana → makes a funny haha → Lilianna is not impressed Outcome: Julia is more likely to make funny hahas around us and not her mom ​ Antecedents → affect the probability of a behaviour occurring in the now -​ Behaviour altering effect ​ Consequences → strengthens or weakens the probability of a behaviour occurring in the future -​ Reinforcement and punishment -​ Repertoire altering effect → acts forward in time Assessing Antecedents ​ Where, what, when, with whom, and in what situations does a behaviour occur? ie.) does the location, time of day, individuals present, etc. have an effect? Assessing Behaviours ​ Target/Problem behaviours -​ Intensity, latency, duration, etc. ​ Alternative behaviours → desirable behaviour to replace undesirable -​ Implementing alternative behaviours results in high success of decreasing an undesirable behaviour → behaviours occur for a reason, providing an alternative gives individuals a way to relay the same message in a more desirable way ie.) if a child wants attention, get them to tap you on the arm and wait rather than crying Assessing Consequences ​ For all behaviours, we must assess the social and environmental/physical (automatic) consequences -​ Automatic consequences are very difficult to take away ie.) if a child cries because they like the sound (consequence) try using noise cancelling headphones on them ​ Magnitude, schedule, and immediacy of the reinforcement should be considered Exploratory Functional Analysis ​ We lack a hypothesis about a functional relationship and are unsure which antecedents/consequences are involved ​ Test all possible functions one at a time ie.) testing both parents in grocery store, testing candy distribution, presence of attention → literally trying everything out ​ Identify the function(s) within the given system and rule out other functions ​ One condition control for all functions Hypothesis Testing Functional Analysis ​ We have a clear hypothesis from direct and indirect assessment ​ We are fairly sure of what is maintaining the behaviour ​ Test and control condition for one function ​ Identifies the function but does not rule out other functions ​ Does not allow us to discover multiple antecedents or consequences -​ We still use this because it is less time consuming, expensive and more reliable than exploratory analysis 2: Basic Kinds of Behaviour and Learning Learning ​ A long term change in behaviour or mental processes due to experience -​ Relatively permanent -​ Causes observable, measurable change in behaviour -​ Occurs due to interactions with the environment Unlearned Behaviours ​ Innate: born with or naturally occurring ​ Reflexes → learned or innate stimulus response relationship which indicates that behaviour happens automatically ie.) walking up or down stairs is technically learned but runs on muscle memory (no conscious input) ie.) salivation at the sight of food  ​ Reflex arc → completely innate behaviour; simplistic behaviours tied to survival or reproduction ie.) when you put your hand on a hot stove ie.) eye blink → prevent our eyes from harm ie.) respiratory occlusion in infants → infants will push away anything that covers their face Elicited Behaviour ​ Occurs to response in stimuli in our environment automatically ie.) pupils constrict when exposed to bright light ie.) food in mouth elicits salivation ie.) sneezing when dust enters your nose ie.) withdrawing from touching a hot surface ​ Reflex arcs → modal action patterns → behavioural sequences → As we move down the line, variability within these behaviours increases -​ In a reflex arc (ie. leg kicking when doctor hits it) there is a single responsive action -​ In MAP there is a sequence of stereotyped actions → they follow a series of operations that are carried out the same way every time ​ Complexity in # of steps increases, no increase in variability of steps -​ In behavioural sequences our sequences of actions start off broad and become specific ​ The closer we get to our end goal, actions become more stereotyped ie.) general search for food ​ Initially you can choose from the cupboard, the pantry, fridge, fruit bowl, etc. ​ If you pick the fruit bowl you can now choose from the fruit bowl but your options have narrowed ​ If you select an orange, the way in which you peel it is very consistent and likely to be carried out the same way every time More on Modal Action/Fixed Action!! ​ Typically species specific behavioural patterns ​ Instinctually driven and genetically programmed for survival ie.) egg rolling (or anything rolling…) in geese -​ Note: once the sequence has begun, it must be carried out completely even if the stimulus/trigger is removed ​ Finding the stimulus! -​ Sign/Releasing Stimulus → features necessary to elicit the response (the thing that begins the sequence) ie.) red spot on beak of gull (100, 92 pecks)  -​ Supernormal Stimulus → exaggerated sign stimulus that elicits an extreme response ie.) red stick in gull experiment (126 pecks!) Learned Behaviours Event-alone learning → same stimulus (event) recurring ​ Habituation and sensitization -​ Descartes was wrong about reflex responses occurring the same way every time ​ Repeated stimulation can alter a response over time ​ Sensitization → overtime we respond more strongly to a repeated stimuli ie.) getting more tense every time the fire alarm goes off because you know it makes your dog tweak out -​ Allows us to be ready for danger in environments we are unsure of (loud, busy) -​ Not to specific to one stimulus ie.) you might begin to associate other similar stimuli with your dog tweaking and jump when you hear a different sudden noise ​ Habituation → overtime we respond less strongly to a repeated stimuli ie.) initially jumping at a fire alarm test; you become less jumpy throughout the day as it continues to go off -​ No need to keep responding to what is consistent in the environment; don’t waste energy when you are safe → use that energy to respond to new stimuli!! -​ Due to long term learned association -​ Very specific to stimulus producing it -​ Not sensory adaptation → in SA the decrease in response is caused by sensory organs ie.) sitting on a chair, people wearing too much cologne, etc. -​ Not fatigue → behaviour is decreased due to overuse of muscles 💀 -​ How do we figure out which one it is?? ​ Process of elimination ​ Experiment with a similar stimulus to see if it elicits the same response ie.) a loud ringtone in place of the fire alarm → in which jumping would indicate habituation ​ Ask individual to recreate the same response to test fatigue Which one do we see? ​ Whichever one is more OP!! ​ Every stimulus will habituate and sensitize us a little bit ​ Whichever one is stronger will be displayed externally Visual Fixation/Attention in Infants  ​ More complex (interesting) stimuli will hold the attention of infants for longer -​ As time goes on, they will slowly lose interest Event-event learning → association with two stimuli (events) ​ Classical/Respondent (Pavlovian) conditioning -​ A neutral stimulus comes to signal the occurrence of a second stimulus (becomes a reliable predictor) -​ Involves manipulation of an antecedent stimulus -​ Can hold adaptive value → helps us prepare in advance for an event ie.) salivating prior to having food in your mouth saves time ​ Pavlov’s study of digestion → noticed that dogs would begin to salivate to the sound of the bell ringing as the door opens ​ Acquisition → time while an association is being learned -​ Non linear progression → learning is not all or nothing ​ Stimulus → anything measurable and detectable that brings a response Behaviour-event learning → operant response following a stimulus (event) ​ Instrumental (operant) conditioning Social learning → how do we learn from watching others? ​ Observational learning ​ Vicarious conditioning → watching the consequences of an individual’s behaviour and extrapolating that the same consequences will apply to yourself Classical Conditioning ​ Classical/Respondent (Pavlovian) conditioning -​ Focuses on antecedents and automatic behaviours (the now) -​ Stored in part of the brain that is responsible for muscle memory → behaviours are not intentional and therefore do not rely on the outer cortex -​ Runs through the cerebellum; actions are unconscious ​ US → biologically significant stimulus that has an innate response associated with it -​ No learning needs to take place ie.) food ie.) pain ​ UR → response naturally associated with the US ie.) salivation ie.) startle ​ NS → a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response -​ Repeated pairing with a US will overtime transform it into a CS ie.) bell in Pavlov’s experiment (prior to being paired with food) ​ CS → previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response -​ Learning occurs ie.) bell post being paired with food  ​ CR → learned response to an environmental stimulus (CS) ie.) salivation of dogs Operant/Instrumental Conditioning ​ AKA Behaviour Event learning ​ E.L Thorndike → focused on stimulus response relationship -​ Satisfaction stamps in a specific behaviour ie.) getting a candy bar for crying in costco → the candy is only important because it strengthens the relationship between crying and costco -​ Discomfort stamps out a specific behaviour ​ Operant Conditioning → learning is controlled by the consequences of one’s behaviour -​ Moving further away from automatic behaviours and towards behaviours with intention ie.) pushing a button to get food ie.) crying to get candy ​ Reinforcement Contingencies -​ POSITIVE → adding a stimulus -​ NEGATIVE → removing a stimulus -​ REINFORCEMENT → increases a behaviour -​ PUNISHMENT → decreases a behaviour Note: for something to count as reinforcement or punishment the behaviour must change; it cannot be unaffected PR → adding something appetitive (desirable) to increase behaviour ie.) getting candy for crying NR → removing something aversive (undesirable) to increase behaviour ie.) taking medicine to relieve a headache PP → adding something undesirable to decrease behaviour ie.) spraying a cat with a water bottle NP → removing something desirable to decrease behaviour ie.) time out → even though we are adding the corner you remove the activities!! ie.) being grounded Operant vs. Classical ​ Operant -​ Controlled by consequences -​ Involves manipulation of consequences -​ Intentional/learned behaviours -​ Behaviour is not already driven by a stimulus ​ Classical -​ Controlled by antecedents -​ Involves manipulation of antecedents  -​ Automatic behaviours -​ Behaviour is transferred from one stimulus to another Social Learning ​ A. Bandura → studied kindergarten students to establish observational learning ie.) Bobo dolls → will children copy the aggressive behaviour of adults? -​ Social (observational) learning → in which we understand what to do by watching others ​ Rely on cognitive/internal explanations -​ Applying someone’s experiences to your own implies internal awareness ​ Vicarious conditioning occurs by an organism watching another organism (a model) be conditioned (vicarious = living vicariously!) -​ Typically we copy those we trust or rely on ie.) seeing your older sibling get grounded for sneaking out → you are influenced not to sneak out 3: Classical Conditioning The Unconditioned!!! ​ Unconditioned Stimuli 1.​ Appetitive (Pleasant) ie.) food, social interaction, etc. -​ Key: The P in Appetitive stands for Pleasant! 2.​ Aversive (Unpleasant) ie.) loud sounds, darkness, etc. -​ Key: Aversive means avoid! ​ A good, effective one should evoke a bodily response -​ Typically to achieve this, “more is better” → the higher intensity of the stimulus, the higher intensity of response -​ In other words, the stronger your unconditioned stimulus is to begin with, the easier it will be to evoke a conditioned response ​ Why? → Higher intensity = Higher salience → the more attention grabbing or noticeable something is, the more likely we are to learn something from it ie.) (some good examples): drugs, pain, loud noises *Note that there is a limit to intensity -​ For physically possible and ethical reasons, there is a limit to how intense we can make a stimulus ie.) (Loud noises) → there is a limit to how loud we can make a noise in terms of the max frequency a rats ears can detect and a  limit to how loud we can make something before it causes damage to the rat ​ Unconditioned Responses -​ Typically function with survival purposes ie.) When you go to the eye doctor, your eye blinks when a puff of air enters it → while the air is safe to enter your eye, in other scenarios, dust or other debris may cause infection. By closing automatically in response to the air (unconditioned stimulus in this scenario) your eye is doing its job to protect you from possible damage or infection. ​ Habituation and Sensitization -​ Recall that sensory adaptation and fatigue are NOT HABITUATION! However, they produce results that are similar to observers and can cause confusion. To avoid this, we must be conscious of trial pacing. If trials occur too closely together we run this risk. The Conditioned! ​ Conditioned Responses -​ Measured through 1.​ Latency → time between the presentation of the CS and the occurrence of the CR (CR must occur before US is presented) ie.) the dog must salivate after hearing the bell but before being exposed to the food 2.​ Intensity → responses tend to get stronger as conditioning proceeds 3.​ Test/Probe trials → occasional presentation of CS without US -​ Occurs after the acquisition (learning) period → resulting from repeated pairing of US and NS ​ Refer back to eye doctor example slides in Topic 3 Notes  -​ These are responses to conditioned stimuli that are similar to the OG unconditioned response ​ While some conditioned and unconditioned responses may be identical, this is not always the case → depending on specific circumstances, there may be slight differences ​ Are not always as strong as the unconditioned response ie.) The dog may salivate at the bell, but not to the level of which they would when there is food present before them Higher Order Conditioning ​ In which we begin conditioning with a second NS → think of it as going up levels -​ We are repeating our process, however swapping roles -​ CS is becoming our new “US” given it now elicits a response (CR) -​ Our newest stimulus becomes our NS and is paired with our current CS (NSnew will become CS2)