Introduction to Educational Psychology - PDF

introduction to educational psychology 1. Classical Conditioning - development of test anxiety and attitudes towards school Classical conditioning 2. Reinforcement - positive and negative Operant, instrumental conditioning...

introduction to educational psychology 1. Classical Conditioning - development of test anxiety and attitudes towards school Classical conditioning 2. Reinforcement - positive and negative Operant, instrumental conditioning Positive and negative reinforcement 3. Punishment - positive and negative Positive and negative punishment 4. Behavior modification - description of phases Assessment Intervention Evaluation 5. Modeling/observational learning - description of phases Self-regulation of behavior 6. Information processing theory - memory stores 7. Metacognition 8. Learning styles - Kolb 9. Self-regulated learning - cycle (description of phases) Forethought phase Performance phase Self-reflection phase 10. Learning to read - description of phases From chat gpt 11. Reading comprehension, strategies Reading strategies 12. Constructivism - principles (accommodation, assimilation, individualization) 13. Misconceptions - what are they, how do they change 14. Learning mathematics Logical-mathematical principles Word problems - hot to teach, how psychology can help 15. Creativity What it is, some techniques to foster Stages of the creative process 16. Critical thinking - what it is, some techniques to foster 17. Transfer of learning Theories introduction to educational psychology 1  How to encourage it 1. Classical Conditioning - development of test anxiety and attitudes towards school Classic and operant conditioning: acquisition of a conditioned response extinction of a conditioned response generalization spontaneous recovery Classical conditioning 1. Before conditioning a. unconditioned stimulus → unconditioned response i. unconditioned stimulus - meat ii. unconditioned response - salivation iii. meat makes a dog salivate b. neutral stimulus → response to a neutral stimulus i. neutral stimulus - tone ii. response to a neutral stimulus - no salivation iii. sound doesn’t make a dog salivate 2. During conditioning a. pairing of stimuli i. unconditioned stimulus + neutral stimulus → unconditioned response 1. meat + tone → salivation ii. pairing an unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus gives a reaction 3. After conditioning a. conditioned stimulus → conditioned response introduction to educational psychology 2  i. conditioned stimulus - tone ii. conditioned response - salivation b. pairing made us condition the dog to salivate at the sound of the tone 4. Acquisition a. establishing the conditioned response 5. Extinction a. the conditioned response weakens b. repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus (tone) without the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response fades and disappears 6. Generalization a. the learned/conditioned response appears in situations where the original conditioned stimulus is not present, but a similar stimulus is 7. Classical conditioning is the basis of emotional reactions a. emotional components are important for developing attitudes 8. Habits can be learned through classical conditioning 9. Classical conditioning in the classroom → emotions a. test anxiety (school phobia?) i. unconditioned stimulus → unconditioned response 1. unconditioned stimulus - failing situation 2. unconditioned response - anxiety 3. failing situation is causing anxiety ii. conditioned stimulus → conditioned response 1. conditioned stimulus - examination 2. conditioned response - anxiety 3. fear of failing the exam is causing anxiety 4. probably through generalization (??) iii. often develops when student repeatedly experiences stress, failure or pressure in test situations introduction to educational psychology 3  1. over time student starts to associate exams with fear, nervousness and stress → even before the test begins iv. step by step breakdown 1. before conditioning a. unconditioned stimulus → failing a test, receiving criticism, pressure b. unconditioned response → fear, stress, anxiety 2. neutral stimulus during conditioning a. neutral stimulus → test environment b. no emotional reaction 3. during conditioning a. unconditioned stimulus + neutral stimulus → unconditioned response b. failure, criticism + exam situation, test environment → anxiety, fear 4. after conditioning a. conditioned stimulus → exam setting b. conditioned response → anxiety, panic, stress b. shame i. failure situation → shame 1. unconditioned stimulus - failure situation 2. unconditioned response → shame 3. fear of failing is causing the feelings of shame ii. school → shame 1. conditioned stimulus - school 2. conditioned response - shame 3. school is associated with shame, failing at school is associated with shame c. attitudes i. classical conditioning can shape positive or negative attitudes toward school based on early experiences introduction to educational psychology 4  ii. many enjoyable experiences in school may develop a positive emotional association with school iii. pleasant experience → positive attitude 1. unconditioned stimulus - pleasant experience 2. unconditioned response - positive attitude 3. pleasant experiences put us in a good mood and thanks to them we have a positive attitude iv. teacher → positive attitude 1. conditioned stimulus - teacher 2. conditioned response - positive attitude 3. if the teacher will be associated with pleasant experiences, it will result in a positive attitude towards the teacher v. step by step breakdown 1. before conditioning a. unconditioned stimulus → fun learning activities, praise from the teacher, friendly classmates b. unconditioned response → enjoyment, excitement 2. neutral stimulus before conditioning a. neutral stimulus → school setting b. no emotional reaction 3. during conditioning a. unconditioned stimulus + neutral stimulus → unconditioned reaction b. fun experiences + school environment → happiness, interest 4. after conditioning a. conditioned stimulus → school environment b. conditioned response → positive attitude toward school vi. negative attitudes 1. if a child frequently experiences failure, embarrassment or punishment at school → they may associate the school environment with negative introduction to educational psychology 5  emotions 2. process equivalent to the shaping of positive attitudes 10. Learning associations a. behavioral changes occur due to the simultaneous presence of two stimuli i. learning does not start with a reflexive connection b. learning happens because stimuli occur close together in time and space c. examples i. school drill techniques 2. Reinforcement - positive and negative Operant, instrumental conditioning 1. Law of effect → Thorndike a. principle of reinforcement i. a response followed by a satisfying event is more likely to be repeated due to the strengthening of the connection between response and situation ii. behavior changes as a result of consequences 2. Research by B. F. Skinner a. operant or instrumental conditioning → a process where behavior is strengthened through reinforcement b. components of conditioning i. situation → discriminative stimulus ii. response iii. reinforcement c. basic principles i. acquisition ii. extinction iii. spontaneous recovery introduction to educational psychology 6  iv. generalization 3. Types of reinforcers a. primary reinforcers → satisfy basic needs b. secondary (conditional) reinforcers → gain effectiveness through association with primary reinforcers 4. Reinforcement schedules a. continuous reinforcement i. every response is reinforced b. partial reinforcement i. ratio schedules → based on number of responses 1. fixed ratio 2. variable ratio ii. interval schedules → based on time 1. fixed interval 2. variable interval 5. Application of reinforcement a. when teaching new tasks → immediate reinforcement without delay b. in early learning stages → reinforce every correct response, then introduce variable reinforcement c. avoid reinforcing undesirable behavior 6. Potential difficulties a. teacher’s attention i. has a greater positive effect than punishment ii. trap of criticism → negative attention is better than no attention b. peer attention c. breaking monotony d. difficult tasks 7. Elimination of responses introduction to educational psychology 7  a. extinction i. avoid unintentionally reinforcing the behavior ii. initially → behavior increases in frequency 1. then gradually decreases b. differential reinforcement i. reinforce all behaviors except the one to be eliminated ii. reinforce reduction in unwanted behavior c. punishment i. time-out ii. response cost 8. Usually better than punishment a. builds motivation and confidence Positive and negative reinforcement 1. Positive reinforcement a. something is added to increase the likelihood of a behavior b. examples in the classroom i. giving stickers or stars for good behavior ii. verbal praise iii. extra free time for finishing work early c. adding a pleasant stimulus → increasing the behavior 2. Negative reinforcement a. something is removed to increase the likelihood of a behavior i. removing usually an unpleasant stimulus b. it is not a punishment → it strengthens behavior by removing something unpleasant c. examples in the classroom i. allowing students to skip a quiz if they participate actively ii. no homework if the class behaves well introduction to educational psychology 8  iii. turning off loud music if the students start working d. removing an unpleasant stimulus → increasing the behavior 3. Punishment - positive and negative 1. Punishment a. used for behavior that threatens the individual or others b. must be immediate c. clearly define undesirable behavior i. punish the behavior, not the person d. a warning before punishment can be effective 2. Negative effects of punishment a. the punisher may be associated with negative emotions i. the teacher perceived negatively b. aversion may generalize i. to a subject, school, authority c. may lead to avoidance behaviors i. lying ii. skipping class d. encourages aggressive behavior patterns e. causes withdrawal and anxiety 3. Should be specific and fair Positive and negative punishment 1. Positive punishment a. something is added to decrease the likelihood of a behavior i. adding an unpleasant stimulus b. examples in the classroom i. writing extra assignments for bad behavior introduction to educational psychology 9  ii. teacher reprimanding a student for interrupting iii. giving detention for being late c. adding an unpleasant stimulus → decreasing the behavior 2. Negative punishment a. something is removed to decrease the likelihood of a behavior i. removing a pleasant stimulus b. examples in the classroom i. taking away a student’s privilege to sit with friends ii. losing points for turning in late work iii. no class trip for students who don’t follow rules c. removing a pleasant stimulus → decreasing the behavior 4. Behavior modification - description of phases 1. Both appropriate and inappropriate behaviors are learned a. inappropriate behaviors can be unlearned through the application of behavioral procedures 2. Phases of behavior modification a. assessment b. intervention c. evaluation Assessment 1. Objective evaluation of behavior 2. ABC analysis → analysis of behavior occurrence a. A → antecedents i. what precedes the behavior ii. under what circumstances the behavior occurs b. B → behavior introduction to educational psychology 10  c. C → consequences i. what the consequences of the behavior are ii. why the behavior persists iii. what reinforces the behavior 3. Baseline → (operant level) the baseline measure level of behavior a. frequency of behavior b. duration c. intensity 4. Functional behavior analysis → identifying the function/purpose of the behavior a. avoidance i. avoiding, refusing instructions or demands ii. avoiding a task iii. avoiding a person iv. avoiding a place/environment b. attention/control i. gaining attention from a teacher ii. gaining attention from other adults iii. gaining attention from peers iv. obtaining an object v. engaging in an activity vi. changing the environment c. other possible factors i. developmental level ii. health/physical limitations iii. sensory needs/automatic reactions iv. personal situation 5. After the assessment → setting a measurable goal introduction to educational psychology 11  Intervention 1. Application of behavioral techniques 2. Techniques derived from classical conditioning a. systematic desensitization i. practice deep relaxation techniques ii. create a hierarchy of threatening situations iii. imagine situations from the hierarchy iv. desensitization → exposure to real-life situations b. aversive control i. pairing undesirable behavior with an aversive stimulus ii. ethical dilemmas are often associated with this method c. flooding (implosive therapy) i. confronting the most frightening situation directly ii. mechanism of extinction → reducing fear response through prolonged exposure) iii. ethical dilemmas d. how to prevent/reduce test anxiety i. creating positive associations with school → encouraging children’s participation with positive reinforcement, making the environment stimulating and engaging ii. working with students on identifying and overcoming fears → creating a non- threatening situation, discussing feelings openly and encouraging students iii. preventing anxiety by providing advance notice → informing students in advance about situations causing anxiety 3. Techniques derived from operant conditioning a. no single reinforcement works all the time for all children b. reinforcement preferences vary by age c. how to determine what reinforces a child i. observation → watch how the child responds to various stimuli introduction to educational psychology 12  ii. questionnaire → use surveys to determine preferred reinforcements d. positive reinforcement i. individualization of reinforcement → tailoring reinforcement to each child’s preferences and needs to increase effectiveness ii. token economy → use of symbolic tokens as reinforcement 1. tokens → tangible, make progress easy to observe and track 2. progress can be measured precisely 3. motivates students to achieve specific goals iii. shaping → reinforcing gradual steps toward the target behavior 1. standards for reinforcement should be gradually increased iv. chaining → building complex sequences of behavior 1. individual elements in the sequence are reinforced 2. can occur forwards → starting from the first step 3. can occur backwards → starting from the last step e. teaching new tasks i. providing immediate reinforcement without delay f. early stages of learning i. reinforce every correct response ii. gradually introducing a variable reinforcement schedule g. do not reinforce undesirable behavior i. avoid giving attention or rewards to behaviors that should decrease h. response cost can be used i. implementing a system where undesirable behavior results in the loss of previously earned rewards or privileges i. positive reinforcement → individualized reinforcement i. managing contingency 1. Premack principle → using a preferred activity to reinforce a less preferred one introduction to educational psychology 13  2. contingency contracting a. immediate reward → especially at the beginning b. start with small, manageable requirements c. frequent reinforcement at the start d. reward adherence to the contract, rather than mere obedience e. ensure the contract is fair and agreed upon f. set clear terms and conditions for the contract g. respond positively to efforts h. avoid alternatives to the agreed terms 3. improving the contract a. specific and achievable terms → setting clear and realistic goals b. incorporating child’s input → encouraging the child to participate in defining goals and rewards c. regular review and adjusting → updating terms based on progress to keep motivation high d. positive language → phrasing the contract terms in an encouraging way e. celebrating achievements → reinforcing milestones to build motivation and confidence j. elimination of responses i. time-out procedure → removal from a reinforcing situation 1. explaining the procedure to the child beforehand 2. staying calm → no shouting or threatening 3. comfortable, clean, voring and non-reinforcing space 4. not talking to the child during the time-out 5. determining the duration a. should be short (ideally, matching child’s age) b. time out is over → child has to stay quiet for 30 sec → allowing them to return introduction to educational psychology 14  6. the child must make up for missed tasks 7. must be used with care and consider the context k. extinction i. gradual reduction of behavior by no longer reinforcing it l. aversive stimulation i. ethical dilemmas → use of aversive stimuli raises significant ethical concerns (potential harm to the child) ii. self-injury in children with autism and intellectual disabilities 1. may not be effective for all children → 40% may not respond to reinforcement 2. can sometimes lead to harmful outcomes 4. Advantages a. children understand explanations of behavior → approach provides clear and understandable reasons for behavior changes b. behavior changes are observable c. cost-effective in terms of time and resources d. can address various behaviors e. can be applied in various environments f. does not require high verbal skills → can be used with children who may not have strong verbal abilities g. no stigmatization → helps avoid creating negative labels for the child 5. Practical problems a. requires rigorous control and precision in applying techniques b. interventions need to be tailored to each child’s unique needs and specific context c. might be challenging to transfer and generalize from training to real-life situations d. potential neglect of cognitive factors Evaluation 1. Assessment of behavioral changes introduction to educational psychology 15  a. experimental criterion → measures changes through controlled observation or data b. clinical criterion → assesses the importance of change in everyday life 5. Modeling/observational learning - description of phases 1. Subprocesses of modeling a. attention process i. observer’s level of engagement ii. qualities of the observer iii. perceived value of observed behavior iv. characteristics of the model b. retention process i. storing and remembering observed behaviors to strengthen memory of the behavior c. production process i. translating observed behaviors into actions to align behavior with the model ii. fine-tuning of one’s approach, creative modeling d. motivational process i. motivation is influenced by self-efficacy, perceived value of the behavior and expected consequences or rewards 2. Modeling in school a. group modeling i. observing peers’ behaviors and skills ii. encourages collective learning → group projects, presentations, collaborative discussions iii. positive group dynamics → cooperation, active listening b. mentorship modeling introduction to educational psychology 16  i. two way process → reciprocal relationship between a mentor and mentee, both of them contribute, communicate and learn from each other ii. practical setting, skill and knowledge can be applied in real-time iii. forms of encouraging learning 1. personal example → mentors lead by example, sharing positive behaviors, attitudes, and approaches 2. setting expectations → clearly communicating expectations, helping mentees understand goals and standards 3. application of personal standards in evaluation → using own experience-based standards to evaluate and provide constructive feedback iv. through mentorship mentees acquire 1. specific subject knowledge or practical skills 2. effective approaches to tasks → time management, organization, problem- solving methods) 3. developing a particular way of thinking or critical thinking skills 4. adapting the professional or academic standards c. self-regulation modeling i. various activities that a person can use to increase or decrease certain behaviors Self-regulation of behavior 1. Targeted behaviors in education a. improvement of skills b. reduction of maladaptive behaviors c. increase of prosocial behavior 2. Self-monitoring a. two-stage process i. self-monitoring → actively observing and tracking one’s own behavior ii. recording → keeping track of behavior by noting it down or recording b. reactive effect → changes in behavior as a result of the act of observing and recording it → becoming more aware and conscious of one’s actions introduction to educational psychology 17  c. factors affecting reactivity i. motivation to change behavior ii. targeted behaviors → the clearer and more focused the target behaviors, more likely to notice changes by an individual iii. reinforcements and feedback → helps to reinforce desired behaviors and guide towards further improvement iv. number of behaviors being monitored → monitoring too many at once can reduce the focus on any one of them v. self-monitoring plan → how, timing, methods, tools used for tracking vi. method of self-monitoring → they way in which the behaviors are tracked affects the ease and consistency 3. Self-evaluation a. determining the adequacy of one’s performance → comparing the results of self- monitoring with a set standard or goal b. helps individuals assess whether they have met their targets c. provides insight into areas needing improvement 4. Self-reinforcement a. rewarding yourself for achieving certain goals or behaviors → points, privileges, positive self-affirmations b. based on the feeling of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with one’s behavior → motivates further progress 5. Self-instructions a. applying certain guidelines, rules or strategies to solve problems b. helps individuals manage tasks, navigate challenges and regulate their responses c. assumption i. internal dialogue influences cognition and guides behavior d. introducing appropriate self-instructions to alter one’s behavior i. using verbal cues or mental strategies to stay focused, calm, goal-oriented 6. Bandura about self-regulation introduction to educational psychology 18  a. effectively regulating behavior → necessary tools or strategies + self-belief to use those strategies successfully b. perceived efficacy in self-management i. self-efficacy → belief in one’s ability to manage and control their own actions, emotions and thoughts ii. critical in motivating individuals 7. Self-regulation training model a. teacher performing the task with verbal commentary b. student performs the task with the teacher giving verbal instructions c. student performs the task and gives themselves verbal instructions d. student performs the task and gives themselves silent instructions e. student performs the task and gives themselves internal self-instructions 8. Goal of training a. self-evaluation i. assessing own performance ii. comparing the performance to the goals iii. identifying areas for improvement b. self-reinforcement i. rewarding yourself for positive behaviors or achievements ii. reinforcing the motivation to continue engaging in the targeted behaviors c. strengthening targeted behavior i. gradually increasing the ability to manage and regulate actions independently 9. Guided development of self-regulation a. instructional assistance and cognitive modeling i. providing explicit guidance ii. modeling cognitive strategies to help the student understand the steps and thinking processes b. guided practice with feedback introduction to educational psychology 19  i. practicing the task with the teacher’s guidance ii. receiving regular feedback to help refine the approach c. ensuring motivation and progress i. activities are carefully designed to motivate the student ii. providing appropriate challenges iii. ensuring study progress in developing self-regulation skills d. self-directed mastery experience i. student becomes more independent over time ii. taking responsibility for their own learning iii. gradually mastering the task without constant guidance iv. reinforcing the ability to regulate own behavior and thinking 6. Information processing theory - memory stores 1. Basic assumptions a. learning is an active process → individuals seek information and assign own meanings to it b. prior knowledge and cognitive skills influence learning 2. Information processing model a. compare memory stores based on: Sensory memory i. function → the purpose each 1. function memory store serves in the a. captures sensory input for a processing and retention of very short time information 2. capacity ii. capacity → the quantity of information each memory a. very large → can hold a big store can hold amount of information from the environment introduction to educational psychology 20  iii. duration of storage → the 3. duration length of time information can a. extremely short be retained in each memory store b. typically less than a second (iconic memory) b. how the model works c. max few seconds (echoic i. sensory memory memory) 1. paying attention to Short-term/working memory something → information moves to short-term 1. function memory a. temporarily holds and 2. ignoring something from processes information for the external world → immediate use information is lost 2. capacity ii. short-term memory a. limited 1. if information is not b. typically 7+/- 2 items rehearsed, it gets lost 3. duration 2. repetition helps keep a. short information in STM longer b. around 20-30 seconds without rehearsal iii. encoding → moving information to long-term Long-term memory memory 1. function 1. if information in STM is a. stores information encoded → it moves to permanently for future long-term memory retrieval 2. happens through different 2. capacity strategies a. virtually unlimited a. rehearsal → repeating something 3. duration many times a. potentially lifelong b. elaboration → b. retrieval may degrade over connecting new time without reinforcement introduction to educational psychology 21  information to things you already know c. organization → grouping information into categories d. visualization → creating mental images iv. long-term memory (final storage) 1. some information may fade over time, but strong memories stay 2. if something was repeatedly reinforced over time there is a bigger chance it will stay 3. explicit memory (declarative) → facts and experiences 4. implicit memory (procedural) → skills and habits v. retrieval → bringing information back 1. needing information → brain retrieving it from LTM to STM 2. strongly encoded information is easier to retrieve 3. poorly encoded information → forgetting it, recalling it incorrectly introduction to educational psychology 22  3. Understanding → depends on the number of connected ideas and the coherence of those corrections a. dynamic b. changeable c. ever-growing 4. Extinction → terminology without understanding a. in classical conditioning → when the behavior resulting from the unconditioned or conditioned stimulus ceases b. in operant conditioning → when a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced, leading to the cessation of that behavior after repeated occurrences 5. Development of understanding a. connecting ideas b. applying knowledge in new situations c. reflecting on experiences d. communicating knowledge e. actively acquiring knowledge 6. Very important in learning a. information is not processed → learning will not occur b. the more extensively new information is processed → the better it will be remembered 7. Metacognition 1. Metacognition is used to monitor and control cognition 2. Model of metacognition knowledge → Flavell, 1979 Person Task Strategies understanding how recognizing knowledge of cognitive people learn and the nature of and metacognitive process the task strategies introduction to educational psychology 23  awareness of one’s identifying understanding when and own cognitive the how to use these processing processing strategies effectively capabilities required to complete the task successfully 3. Efklides’ model of metacognition → Efklides, 2008 a. model emphasizes how automatic thinking and emotions are regulated by personal awareness i. further shaped by social and reflective processes b. explains how metacognition operates at three levels i. object level → nonconscious level 1. involves cognition and emotions 2. cognitive regulation (thinking processes) and affective regulation (emotional responses) occur automatically ii. metalevel → personal-awareness level 1. metacognitive experiences → real-time feelings, doubts, confidence 2. metacognitive skills → strategies to regulate thinking 3. monitors and controls the object level iii. meta-metalevel → social level 1. metacognitive knowledge → beliefs about cognition 2. metacognitive judgments → evaluations of performance 3. allows reflection and monitoring beyond immediate tasks 4. often influenced by social interactions 4. Nelason & Narens’ model of metacognition → 1990 a. this constant cycle helps regulate learning, decision-making, and problem-solving b. explains how we monitor our thinking, using two distinct levels i. object level → cognition introduction to educational psychology 24  1. represents basic cognitive processes → reading, problem-solving, remembering 2. this is where the actual thinking happens ii. meta-level → metacognition 1. contains a mental model of cognition 2. involves awareness, evaluation, and strategies for controlling thinking iii. flow of information 1. monitoring → the meta-level observes what happens at the object level (”do I understand this?”) 2. control → the meta-level adjusts the object level based on feedback (”I should reread this section”) c. metacognitive processes in students i. planning → approach to work, order of activities, breaks ii. selection of strategies iii. setting goals iv. monitoring knowledge and understanding v. selecting what to learn → identifying what is important and prioritizing content vi. ease-of-learning assessment → evaluating how difficult or easy the material is vii. evaluating learned material viii. goal achievement assessment → determining if the set objectives have been met ix. decision to stop learning x. estimating the amount of material xi. sense of knowing → feeling confident about one’s understanding and readiness d. monitoring process i. updating → am I paying attention, did I understand ii. error recognition → identifying mistakes iii. learning assessments iv. ease of learning introduction to educational psychology 25  v. feeling of knowing vi. source monitoring vii. evaluation viii. confidence assessment → how confident am I that my answer is correct 1. process involves evaluating the accuracy of response and its likelihood of being correct 2. highlights the importance of repeated learning → until the material can be reproduced accurately and consistently 3. metacognitive assessment a. metacognitive evaluations are often inaccurate b. consistence tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s answers c. response can be flawed despite high confidence d. overconfidence bias → lack of clarity in understanding leads to errors despite certainty e. control process i. involves active decision-making and regulation during learning ii. orientation → identifying the scope and content of all the material to be studied iii. planning → creating a structured roadmap for learning iv. time management → allocating study time effectively and scheduling intervals to avoid fatigue v. selecting learning strategies vi. error correction → reviewing or identifying mistakes in understanding or recall and revising them vii. concluding learning → determining when to stop learning based on reaching goals or achieving mastery 5. Metacognitive strategies a. planning strategies i. goal setting → establishing specific, measurable objectives for learning tasks ii. material review → scanning and organizing study material before beginning introduction to educational psychology 26  iii. question production → formulating questions about the content iv. task analysis → breaking down the task into manageable components v. strategy selection b. monitoring strategies i. attention monitoring → ensuring focus is maintained during studying or task execution ii. understanding monitoring → checking comprehension of material being learned c. evaluation and regulation strategies i. behavior modification → adjusting or adapting learning behaviors to address misunderstandings or obstacles ii. strategy adjustment → changing learning approaches or techniques if the current strategy proves ineffective 6. Dilemmas in metacognition process a. metacognitive processes can operate either consciously or automatically b. automatic processes i. operate unconsciously during familiar or well-practiced tasks ii. require little effort or reflection, actions flow seamlessly without disruption c. conscious processes i. activated during moments of difficulty, uncertainty, or novelty ii. involve deliberate reflection and problem-solving to overcome obstacles iii. Dewey’s percpective 1. activities run smoothly → reflection is unnecessary 2. difficulty or obstruction → disrupting the flow → prompting us to pause and evaluate 3. reflection → linked to gaining a broader perspective 4. reassessing the relationships between facts → resolving the issue, deciding on a course of action d. balance between the two introduction to educational psychology 27  i. automatic responses → routine tasks ii. conscious reflection → when challenges arise iii. goal → fostering awareness of when to switch from automatic to conscious learning and decision-making 7. Development of metacognition a. Piaget i. metacognition is believed to develop during the formal operational stage 1. typically occurs after the age of 11 2. stage characterized by the emergence of abstract thinking → possibility to reflect on own thought processes ii. contemporary findings → research indicates that metacognitive foundations emerge much earlier, even in early childhood 1. awareness of knowledge → understanding whether one knows something and how they know it 2. seeking information → exploring, asking questions to fill gaps in knowledge 3. goal-directed behavior → actions focused on achieving specific outcomes iii. implications 1. metacognitive skills develop progressively from early childhood and become more sophisticated with age and experience 2. early educational interventions → can nurture and enhance emerging metacognitive skills b. Vygotsky i. metacognition and self-regulation as verbal activities 1. inner speech → central role in metacognition 2. internalization of verbal thought processes → monitoring and regulating cognition and behavior ii. developmental trajectory 1. significant growth in metacognitive abilities between the ages of 11 and 15 → corresponding to key cognitive and social developments during introduction to educational psychology 28  adolescence 2. increasing ability to reflect on one’s thoughts, plan and regulate problem-solving strategies, and evaluate outcomes 8. Applications to metacognition a. awareness of how one learns best b. regulating strategies to enhance learning c. evaluating success to improve future performance d. example → remembering a list of words i. planning → deciding hoe to approach memorization ii. monitoring → checking progress during memorization iii. evaluating → reflecting on the effectiveness of the strategies used 9. Acquiring metacognitive knowledge and strategies a. sources of acquisition → learning from others i. crucial role of parents, teachers and peers → modeling metacognitive practices ii. observing and mimicking behaviors → helps in developing one’s own metacognitive skills b. teaching metacognition i. integration into content instruction 1. metacognitive strategies shouldn’t be taught in isolation 2. they should be woven into the teaching of academic subjects ii. raising awareness of the benefits 1. the utility of metacognitive strategies in improving learning and problem- solving 2. the tendency to overestimate knowledge and abilities → can hinder effective learning iii. practice and repetition 1. constant practice over time introduction to educational psychology 29  2. reflective journaling, guided questioning, peer discussions → help with internalizing strategies 10. Steps to promote metacognition a. explicit modeling of metacognitive strategies b. encouraging self-assessment and self-questioning during tasks c. designing activities that require student to plan, monitor and evaluate their learning processes d. providing constructive feedback 11. Metacognitive prompts → Shraw, 1998 a. planning i. understanding the task ii. defining goals iii. identifying resources and strategies iv. estimating time b. monitoring i. understanding → do I understand, am I grasping the full concept ii. task relevance iii. goal tracking iv. adjusting plans c. evaluation i. goal achievement ii. effectiveness iii. ineffectiveness iv. future improvements 12. Measuring metacognition a. off-line methods i. assess metacognition after the learning process → gaining insights into general metacognitive knowledge and strategies introduction to educational psychology 30  ii. questionnaires → evaluating learner’s awareness and use of metacognitive knowledge and strategies iii. interviews → structured or semi-structured conversations, how individuals understand and regulate their thinking processes b. on-line methods i. capture metacognitive activity during the learning process ii. think-aloud protocols → verbalizing thoughts while performing a task iii. computer log files → tracks actions, decisions and time spent on tasks to analyze metacognitive behavior during digital learning iv. eye tracking and facial expressions → inferring attention , comprehension or confusion v. screen recording → learner’s interaction with digital content to analyze decision making and task navigation 8. Learning styles - Kolb 1. Hypothetical learning cycle with four stages a. concrete experience b. reflective observation c. abstract conceptualization d. active experimentation 2. There are two dimensions a. perceiving information b. processing information introduction to educational psychology 31  3. Cycle of learning a. concrete experience i. starting point → learning begins through direct, hands-on experience ii. engaging in activities or situations that provide firsthand understanding b. reflective observation i. observing and reflecting on the experience from different perspectives ii. emphasis on identifying patterns, understanding the context and reviewing c. abstract conceptualization i. formulating theories, concepts or generalizations based on reflections ii. focuses on building an intellectual framework to understand the experience d. active experimentation i. applying newly developed concepts in practical situations to test them ii. emphasis on trial-and-error learning and problem-solving 4. Learning styles a. reflector → divergent style (feel and watch) i. ability for imagination → individuals excel in generating ideas and envisioning possibilities ii. multiple perspectives → open-minded approach, considering various angles and outcomes iii. interest in people and emotions → empathetic, value personal connections and emotional depth introduction to educational psychology 32  iv. preference for creative activities v. dislike for external pressure → thrive in environments that allow for free exploration and minimal constraints vi. common roles → advisors, managers, artists b. theorist → assimilator style (think and watch) i. theoretical models → thrive at synthesizing information and creating organized, conceptual framework ii. motivated by knowledge → focus on understanding the clarity and structure of concepts iii. abstract concepts over people → value intellectual exploration, less inclined toward interpersonal engagement iv. structural and logical presentations → favor detailed, systematic and logical explanations v. respect for experts vi. abstract disciplines → often drawn to foundational sciences and mathematics c. pragmatist → convergent style (think and do) i. practical use of ideas → emphasizing functionality and pragmatism ii. motivation → focus on understanding processes iii. preferences → clear, systematic instructions that explain the sequence of thought iv. detached approach → less emotionally expressive, prefer working with tools, technology and machines rather than interpersonal tasks v. carrier → engineers, physicists d. activist → accommodating style (feel and do) i. preference for action →enjoy participating directly, experimenting with new activities, hands-on learners, thrive on personal experience ii. problem-solving approach →tackling challenges intuitively, learning through trial-and-error, seeking for input from others to guide their efforts rather than relying heavily on analytical reasoning iii. risk-taking → willing to take risks, adapt quickly to changing circumstances introduction to educational psychology 33  iv. interactive learning → excel in collaborative environments where relationships and dynamics between system components can be explored through interaction v. carrier → marketing, sales 9. Self-regulated learning - cycle (description of phases) 1. Organized in 3 phases a. performance phase b. self-reflection phase c. forethought phase 2. Empirical evidence supporting the model a. experts performed more SRL actions b. SRL skills predicted 90% variance in serving skills (women volleyball) c. a linear trend → the more phases trained, the better the participants’ score (basketball) d. higher achievers showed more use of subprocesses from Zimmerman’s model 3. Schmitz a. major emphasis to the role of self-monitoring in SRL b. the use of learning diaries enhances all SRL phases → effective way to impact in student’s SRL and performance 4. Self-regulation a. composed of different processes b. cyclical → each performance of the task provides feedback for the strategy used in future task c. Zimmerman’s model comes from social cognitive theory i. includes processes coming from self-regulation theories ii. widely used in scientific literature d. self-regulation → control that student’s have over their cognition, behavior, emotions, and motivation through the use of personal strategies to achieve the introduction to educational psychology 34  goals they have established e. control of cognition → the cognitive component of self-regulation (metacognition) f. behavior control → it is needed to control what the student is actually doing to achieve the goals g. emotion control → controlling the emotions is crucial i. refers both to regulation of positive and negative emotions h. motivation control i. being aware of one’s motivation and generating self-motivation ii. maintaining interest and attention during a task iii. volition → motivation influences attraction to a task, but once student engages in learning or performance → volitional processes take over i. establishing goals → self-regulating to achieve them i. not always oriented toward learning ii. three main orientations 1. learning 2. performance 3. avoidance → activating a number of strategies detrimental for learning j. self-handicapping → considered self-regulation as it’s a response to student’s goals - avoiding the task 5. Social aspects of the regulation of learning a. model doesn’t cover the social instructional aspects of self regulation in detail b. issues were dealt with using two related models i. triadic model → exploring these models from a socio-cognitive perspective ii. multi-level model → describes the social origins of self-regulatory processes c. cyclical phase model i. focuses on how metacognitive and motivational processes and beliefs interact during successive feedback cycles ii. focuses primarily on the description of self-regulatory processes introduction to educational psychology 35  iii. not enough attention on how the processes are acquired or how the social interaction influences d. role of environment in the development of self-regulation i. Vygotskian tradition → key to development of self-regulation - acquisition of private speech ii. constructivist tradition 1. there are changes needed for learners to become self-regulated and are facilitated through social attitudes 2. children’s understanding of self-regulated learning can be enhanced in three ways a. authentic or repeated experiences in school b. explicit instruction coming from the teachers c. engagement in practices that require self-regulation iii. collaborative interactions among peers 1. how the students self-regulate 2. self-regulating as a group, exploring the synergies and interactions 3. distinguishing among three types of regulation a. self-regulated learning → self-regulation at the individual level, how the students adapt to environment to achieve goals b. co-regulated learning → interaction between two or more individuals, one of them directing in a strategic way to achieve goals c. socially shared regulated learning → joint negotiated management of all the group members achieved negotiated and shared goals 4. different aspects a. the role of age b. the effect of emotions and motivation and their regulation c. the effect of the working environment Forethought phase 1. Initial phase → the student approaches the task introduction to educational psychology 36  a. analyzing the task b. assessing the capacity to perform the task successfully c. establishing goals and plans regarding completing the task d. task interest + goal orientation → achieving adequate planning, performing the task appropriately 2. Main activities a. analyzing what the task characteristics are → creating a first representation of how it should be performed b. analyzing the value the task has → conditions motivation and effort → the attention students will pay during the performance (activation of self-regulatory strategies) 3. Task analysis a. start of the self-regulatory cycle b. fragmenting into smaller pieces c. choosing the personal strategies based on previous knowledge and/or experience d. establishing goals and strategic planning → key conditions for self-regulation to occur e. goal setting → to select goals the students take into account i. the assessment criteria → standards against which the performance will be assessed ii. the performance level that students want to achieve → the level of “perfection” the student intents to have iii. not knowing the criteria → difficulties establishing appropriate goals iv. assessment criteria are explicitly stated → positive effects on students’ learning f. strategic planning → selecting an action plan and choosing the strategies that are needed i. planning → key self-regulatory process, good predictor for success ii. planning is one of the main differences between experts and novices iii. experts spend more time planning → crucial for higher achievement iv. implementation of planning → depends on students’ motivation to achieve the established goals introduction to educational psychology 37  4. Self-motivational beliefs a. they guarantee and maintain the motivation to perform a task → beliefs, values, interest, goals b. expectations → both types are highly correlated → the higher self-efficacy, the higher the outcome expectations tend to be i. self efficacy 1. expectations → beliefs about the personal capability to perform a task 2. important for students’ motivation a. low self-efficacy → motivation decreasing → not wanting to make effort b. high self-efficacy → bigger motivation → using needed strategies ii. outcomes expectations 1. beliefs about the success of a given task 2. low outcome expectations → not making the effort need to succeed 3. independent from self-efficacy → can be low even if self-efficacy is high c. interest and task value i. variables that energize students’ initial approach to the task ii. task value → the importance that the task has for the students’ personal goals 1. perceiving the task as useful → motivation to perform and learn from it raises → activating more learning strategies 2. seems to be a modulator that contributes to the increase or decrease of interest → motivation moves in the intrinsic-extrinsic continuum iii. interest to perform a task → liking for the task 1. personal → activated by the personal meaning that the task has for a person 2. situational → activated by task characteristics iv. personal interest and task value can sum effects to enhance the energy invested in a task 1. they do not always energize action in the same direction d. goal orientation introduction to educational psychology 38  i. the students’ belief about the purposes of their learning ii. there’s an effect on self-regulation iii. results of learning goals 1. choosing strategies that promote deeper learning 2. using strategies that have more advanced reflection processes 3. recovering faster from academic failures 4. having more intrinsic interest in the task e. processes are interrelated and interact during the self-regulatory process → especially in the forethought phase f. influence can happen really fast → students might not be aware of them happening g. their relevance is extremely high → they determine the initial movement (moving from analyzing and visualizing the task to actually performing it) h. depending on the level and type of motivation coming from the variables → students’ self-regulation is completely different 5. Critique of the model a. cognitive oriented → emotions don’t have a major role in the planning phase i. emotions are complex ii. anxiety can affect behavior both positively and negatively iii. emotions physiologically have revealed poor predictions of behavior iv. self-efficacy have proven to be a good predictor for performance Performance phase 1. In this phase performance takes place 2. Important that the students keep their concentration and use appropriate learning strategies a. motivation doesn’t decrease b. keeping track of the progress towards goals 3. There are two main processes a. self-observation → comparing what the student is doing against the expert model introduction to educational psychology 39  b. self-control → maintaining the concentration and interest through strategies 4. Self-observation a. prerequisite to control the task process → clear understanding of the adequacy and quality of what students are doing b. successful self-observation i. self-monitoring → metacognitive monitoring, self-supervision 1. online cognitive process that assesses the performance 2. occurs during the performance 3. similar to self-assessment ii. self-recording 1. keeping a record of the actions for a later analysis 2. coding the actions that are being done during the performance 3. an external strategy to help monitor and enhance reflection once the task has been done 4. students can be aware of things that could have gone undetected before 5. during the performance → an overload of cognitive processing can happen → impeding the mental registering of all the actions performed 5. Self-control a. set of strategies that helps to maintain concentration and interest b. strategies can be classified i. metacognitive strategies 1. the purpose is to maintain concentration 2. specific strategies/task strategies a. use of specific strategies related to the task 3. self-instruction a. self-given instructions about the task b. verbalizations → improving learning, crucial for self-regulation 4. imagery introduction to educational psychology 40  a. mental organization of information b. images increase interest → allowing students to visualize situations 5. time management a. planning the use of time during the task b. having a perspective of all the aspects of the task they need to perform c. is done using strategies that monitor the performance of the task to finish at the established time 6. environmental structuring a. creating the environment that facilitates learning b. environment with less distractions and which facilitates learning 7. help-seeking a. asking for help when needed b. might appear as a bad indicator of self-regulation → might indicate lack of success completing the task c. indicator for self-regulation when a number of conditions are given → intention to learn from the answer, not avoiding the activity ii. motivational strategies 1. incentives to enhance or maintain the interest during the task a. done through self-directing messages → reminding of the goal to achieve or the challenge a student is trying to solve 2. self-consequences a. enhancing the feeling of progress through self-praise or self-rewards b. strategies keep the willingness to put in effort and interest high → increasing a possibility of activating strategies 6. Critique of the model a. the emotions are in the background → appear if the students don’t activate the adequate strategies and don’t experience progress b. compared to Kuhl’s model introduction to educational psychology 41  i. emotional control is necessary to the success of the task when students are state-oriented ii. self-regulation and motivation fluctuations are affected by the processes linked to volition 1. attention control → focusing the attention on the relevant information for the goals and not on the distracting one 2. motivation control → enhancing the appealing of the goal to achieve and the actions that lead to it 3. emotion control → being able to “disconnect” the negative mood status that interferes with cognitive processing and concentration on the task 4. failure control → facing the occasions of failure as opportunities to learn (related to state-orientation vs action-orientation) a. state-orientation → focus on results and the emotions they trigger b. action orientation → process and knowledge relevant to the performance of the task and control of the emotions c. not enough attention on time management i. time management → composed of more complex strategies than the ones presented in the model ii. crucial for academic success iii. procrastination → carrying out less urgent/pleasurable tasks in preference to more urgent/less pleasurable ones; putting of impending tasks to a later time Self-reflection phase 1. Students judge their work and formulate reasons for their results a. experiencing positive or negative emotions depending on their attributional style → emotions will influence their motivation and regulation in the future 2. Splits into two processes a. self-judgement → students assess their work b. self-reaction → reactions to self-judgements c. there’s a mutual influence between these two processes 3. Self-judgement introduction to educational psychology 42  a. self-evaluation i. students’ assessment of their performance based on their assessment criteria and modulated by their performance level goal ii. assessment criteria → can be established with the teacher’s help before starting the task → assessing the work with more accuracy iii. not knowing the criteria → no opportunity to reflect on correct answers and mistakes → no self-evaluation, successes or failures based on teacher’s feedback iv. done based on the goals that the students set up at the beginning of the task and on the performance level they want to reach 1. students with same assessment criteria and similar quality of products can judge their work based on their goals and performance level v. assessment criteria can be established in three ways 1. based on analysis of the competence that the students are about to learn → objective criterion 2. based on previous performance levels → progress criterion 3. based on comparison with others’ performance → social comparison criterion vi. goals established during the forethought phase → influencing the standards vii. judgement standards influence the attributions that students do 1. progress criterion → making progress → positive interpretation of performance 2. social comparison criterion → making progress → focusing on how the others have done → less adaptive manner to interpret success or failure b. causal attribution i. self-explanations about the reasons for success and failure ii. making inferences trying to answer the question → “why has this happened” iii. inferences imply attributing responsibilities to different factors about the results obtained → ability, effort, luck, support from others, control iv. attributions → triggering emotions that affect the motivation and expectations for future task performance introduction to educational psychology 43  4. Self-reaction a. emotions influence self-efficacy and outcome expectations b. people can control their attribution style → more adaptive, better control over emotions c. self-satisfaction/affect i. affective and cognitive reactions produced by the self-judgements ii. positive affect → higher levels of motivation for future performance iii. negative affect → avoiding the task d. adaptive/defensive decisions i. will to perform the task in the future and to activate learning strategies ii. adaptive decisions → willingness to perform the task again is maintained (either keeping the same strategies or using new ones) iii. defensive decisions → avoiding the performance of the task not to experience new failures (affects: apathy, lack of interest, procrastination, learned helplessness) e. cyclical → students are influenced by their previous performance i. type of attribution adopted, emotions experienced, inferences directly affect the motivational variables described in the planning phase 1. self-efficacy expectations 2. outcome expectations 3. interest and task value 4. goal orientation ii. failing → defensive decisions → belief in having fewer possibilities to success in the next performance → decreasing interest and outcome expectations → avoidance of goals iii. failing → adaptive decisions → looking for feedback to correct mistakes → attributing under control → maintaining learning goals, higher motivation 5. Critique of the model a. lack of the perspective of the emotional factor introduction to educational psychology 44  i. state-orientation + failing → rumination (state in which the students get stuck on their mistakes and wander around them without learning how to find a solution) 1. rumination → anxiety if the students have to perform the task again 2. students haven’t learned how to solve the problems ii. students don’t like to fail repeated times → could lead to decrease on students’ self-esteem 10. Learning to read - description of phases 1. Learning to read → complex cognitive process that involves multiple stages a. requires the integration of phonological, orthographic, and semantic knowledge 2. Reading → process of decoding written symbols to derive meaning → extracting and interpreting information a. recognizing letters b. understanding words c. comprehending sentences 3. The importance of learning to read → imperative of mass literacy a. facilitates across to knowledge b. enhances cognitive development c. improves communication skills d. supports academic success e. civilization achievement f. external memory g. externalization to thoughts and ideas 4. Reading literacy → understanding, using, and reflecting on written texts to achieve personal goals, develop knowledge and potential, and participate in society a. students in Croatia → results significantly below the OECD country average b. some students do not reach the basic level c. only a small percentage of students achieve the highest level introduction to educational psychology 45  d. 10% of children have reading difficulties 5. Why do children have reading difficulties? a. reading is a complex skill b. for effective text comprehension, the development of two processes is necessary i. decoding → translating written text into spoken code ii. linguistic comprehension c. processes necessary for text comprehension → Cain i. decoding ii. word r