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1.​DIgestive System: a.​Describe the role of the mouth, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, pancreas, liver, b.​gallbladder, rectum, and anus in digestion. Also be able to identify them anatomically. c.​ Name the specific enzymes are involved in digestion,...

1.​DIgestive System: a.​Describe the role of the mouth, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, pancreas, liver, b.​gallbladder, rectum, and anus in digestion. Also be able to identify them anatomically. c.​ Name the specific enzymes are involved in digestion, what is their specific function, and d.​where in the digestive system they are active (amylase, protease, lipase, pepsin, lactase, e.​nuclease) f.​ Explain the process of digestion for carbohydrates, cellulose/fiber, proteins, and lipids. g.​ How your body position matters when taking a pill h.​ The role of proteases in digestion ( what samples contained the most i.​proteases? What do proteases do? How was data collected/analyzed?) j.​ 2.​Photosynthesis a.​Name and describe different structures/part of the leaf and their functions b.​How does stomata adapt and function in different environments? c.​How does light and certain colors of light get absorbed by plants? d.​Lab activities review, how do the procedures work e.​Balanced equation? f.​Light dependent and independent reactions work? g.​Identify parts of the chloroplast 3.​Cellular respiration: a.​Balanced chemical equation? b.​Different steps of aerobic and anaerobic respiration c.​Explain how anaerobic respiration was measured in muscle fatigue lab d.​Identify the parts of the mitochondria e.​How cyanide murders relate f.​Know how the rate of respiration related to type and concentration of sugar 4.​Biogeochemical Cycles i.​ Carbon is the backbone of the most important biological molecules (also known as macromolecules): carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. A lot of carbon is found as carbon dioxide - this is a gas in our atmosphere. It currently makes up around 0.04% of the gases in our atmosphere. Carbon dioxide is absorbed by plants and algae for the process of photosynthesis. During this process, carbon dioxide is used to produce glucose. In this way, carbon is stored in plants and algae. When animals eat plants and algae, the stored carbon is passed onto them and becomes part of their body mass. All living things respire to release energy, including animals and plants. The process of aerobic cellular respiration releases carbon dioxide back into the Atmosphere. When a living organism dies, most of the time it is broken down by decomposers. These respire to release energy for decomposition - this releases carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere in the process. Sometimes when an organism dies, if there are certain conditions then it can become fossilized - this is a very slow process that can take thousands or even millions of years. Fossilization can produce fossil fuels - coal, oil and gas - which are a store of carbon. Humans extract fossil fuels from the earth and burn them, e.g. in coal plants and vehicles. During the combustion process, carbon is converted into carbon dioxide and enters our atmosphere. Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere can dissolve into seawater. The oceans act as a store of carbon, absorbing around one third of the carbon dioxide released during human activity each year. Marine life such as molluscs and crustaceans, use calcium carbonate to build their shells. 2. The Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen is an important component of proteins and nucleic acids like DNA and RNA. Nitrogen is found in abundance in the Earth’s atmosphere, making up 78% of the air we breathe. However, in this form, we cannot use it. Neither can other animals or plants. Instead, we depend upon the work of bacteria. The first step is nitrogen fixation. This is done by both free-living bacteria in the soil and by symbiotic bacteria that live in the root nodules of leguminous plants such as peas, beans and clover. They convert nitrogen into ammonium ions (NH4+). Nitrification occurs next. In this process, ammonium ions are converted into nitrites by a group of nitrifying bacteria called Nitrosomonas. Then other nitrifying bacteria, called Nitrobacter, convert nitrites into nitrates (NO3-). These nitrates can then be absorbed by plant roots in the process of Assimilation. When plants are eaten by animals, their nitrogen compounds are passed on through digestion and absorption. These become part of the animal’s body, which can then be passed on through the food chain, e.g. if another animal eats the herbivore. Not all of the nitrogen compounds consumed become body mass - some are lost through animal waste, e.g. urea in urine. This waste, along with dead animals and plants, is broken down by decomposers. Decomposers include fungi and bacteria. They break down the nitrogen compounds into ammonium ions in the process of ammonification. The ammonium ions can then be nitrified again. Nitrates in the soil are not always absorbed by plant roots. There are denitrifying bacteria that can use nitrates to respire. When they respire, the nitrates are converted back into nitrogen gas. This happens in anaerobic conditions, for example, in waterlogged soil which has little oxygen. Nitrates can also be created without bacteria - this occurs naturally when there is lightning. It fixes nitrogen from the atmosphere, creating nitrates. Humans produce nitrates from nitrogen on an industrial scale in the Haber process. This is how artificial fertilizer is created. When it is spread on crops, the plant roots can assimilate the nitrates it contains. 3. The Water Cycle Your cells are more than 70% water. Water is essential for all life. It is an important solvent, dissolving and transporting other chemicals in cells and in the blood. It acts as a temperature buffer to maintain a stable body temperature. It aids animals in the process of aerobic cellular respiration to release energy. It creates environments for marine life to live. Most water is found as saltwater (97.5%) and only a small fraction is available as freshwater - this is what we need to survive. Liquid water is evaporated from oceans, lakes, puddles, etc. by heat energy from the Sun. This turns it into water vapor in the Atmosphere. Water vapor will eventually cool and condense back into water. This is how clouds form. Clouds can be blown by wind and transported to other areas far away from the ocean. Eventually the water within clouds is released as precipitation that falls to the ground. This can be rain, snow, sleet, hail, etc. Fog and mist can also return water vapor to the ground. Most precipitation is absorbed into the ground in a process called percolation. In the soil layer, this water is often taken up by plant roots.Plants transport the water from their roots to their leaves in a process called the transpiration stream. Most of the water that reaches the leaves evaporates from tiny holes in the leaves (stomata) and enters the atmosphere again as water vapor. Transpiration keeps the plant cool and helps it transport important mineral ions from the roots to the leaves. Some of the water that falls as precipitation will percolate deeper into the ground, forming groundwater. This is water found in cracks in rocks and sand. Very deep groundwater reservoirs are known as aquifers - some of these have stores of water from thousands of years ago. More shallow groundwater can flow back through the soil layers to streams, rivers, lakes and the ocean.Not all precipitation is absorbed by the ground. If there is a very heavy amount of rain for example, it can quickly saturate the soil. The rest of the water flows on top of the ground, which is known as surface runoff. This water can enter streams, rivers, lakes and the ocean.4. The Phosphorus Cycle: Phosphorus is often a limiting nutrient in ecosystems. This means it is in short supply and puts a limit on the growth possible. This happens particularly in marine ecosystems. Phosphorus tends to be found naturally as phosphate ions (PO4 3-) which form compounds with other elements, e.g. calcium phosphate. Phosphates are found in sedimentary rocks. Weathering breaks down and dissolves rocks, releasing phosphates into the soil. Phosphates also enter rivers, lakes, and ocean through surface runoff.Plant roots are able to absorb phosphates for the plant to use. When animals eat plants, the phosphates in the plant are passed onto them.When plants and animals die,decomposers break them down, releasing phosphates. They may take up some of the phosphates for themselves, and the rest is released back into soil and water. The breakdown of organic waste also recycles phosphates. Artificial fertilizer often contains phosphates. It is spread on crops to improve growth. Rain can cause phosphates from the fertilizer to dissolve into the water. Dissolved phosphates in the surface runoff can enter streams, rivers, lakes and oceans. Sewage  (animal waste) that is not contained and treated properly can also enter waterways, adding phosphates to the water.Algae and other photosynthetic marine organisms take up dissolved phosphates. These are passed on through marine food chains each time an organism is eaten. When marine organisms die, their remains settle at the bottom of the lakes and oceans. Over a long period of time, the process of sedimentation compacts detritus into new sedimentary rocks. The phosphates that were in the bodies of marine organisms are now stored in the sedimentary rock. However, this rock is inaccessible to living organisms, found under layers of sedimentation at the bottom of oceans and lakes. A geological process called uplift can move the sedimentary rock from the ocean to the land. This is a very slow process taking tens and hundreds of thousands of years. This is one of the reasons that the phosphorus cycle is so slow. The weathering process to release the phosphate ions from the rock is also a gradual process. 5.​Food Chains and Webs a.​How energy is transferred from one trophic level to another b.​10% rule - Only 10% of energy is in the biomass eaten by predators because the rest is lost in ways like the bones and excrement left over c.​Classify organisms i.​ Heterotroph eats other organisms to gain energy ii.​ Autotrophs make their own food iii.​ Predators kill other animals for food iv.​ Prey gets killed v.​ Carnivores only eat meat vi.​ Herbivores only eat plants vii.​ Omnivores eat anything viii.​ Producers are the first things in food chains ix.​ Consumers consumer other organisms x.​ Decomposer decomposes other organisms for energy d.​Biggest loss of biomass is because of cellular respiration, from the heat lost to the atmosphere, and digestion losses some energy in excrement, making the 10% rule 6.​Root Words a.​An: not, without b.​Aero: air c.​Ase: enzyme d.​chlor(o): light green e.​Glyc: sugar, glucose and its derivatives f.​lip(o): fat, lacking, leave g.​Lys: break down h.​Hydro: water i.​Syn: with j.​Sis: action or a process k.​Troph: food, nourishment l.​Photo: light m.​Hetero: different, other n.​Herb: grass, green stalk, blades o.​Omni: all p.​Carn: flesh, red meat q.​Calor: heat