Cognitive Development Part 2 PDF

Cognitive Development Part 2: Terms 1. multistore model = model that depicts information as flowing through three processing units (or stores): the sensory store, the short-term store (STS), and the long-term store (LTS). 2. sensory store = first information-processing store, in whi...

Cognitive Development Part 2: Terms 1. multistore model = model that depicts information as flowing through three processing units (or stores): the sensory store, the short-term store (STS), and the long-term store (LTS). 2. sensory store = first information-processing store, in which stimuli are noticed and briefly available for further processing 3. short-term store (STS) or working memory = second information-processing store, in which stimuli are retained for several seconds and operated upon 4. long-term store (LTS) = third information-processing store, in which information that has been examined and interpreted is stored for future use 5. inhibitory control = a form of self-regulation that allows children to purposely choose not to attend to information 6. set-shifting = moving from one strategy to another 7. span of apprehension = the number of items that people can keep in mind at any one time 8. elaboration = strategy for remembering that involves adding something to (or creating meaningful links between) the bits of information we are trying to retain 9. production deficiency = failure to spontaneously generate and use known strategies that could improve learning and memory 10. adaptive strategy choice model = Siegler’s model to describe how strategies change over time; the view that multiple strategies exist within a child’s cognitive repertoire at any one time, with these strategies competing with one another for use 11. implicit cognition = thought that occurs without awareness that one is thinking. 12. explicit cognition = thinking and thought processes of which we are consciously aware. 13. metacognition = knowledge about cognition and about the regulation of cognitive activities 14. analogical reasoning = reasoning that involves using something you already know to help reason about something not known yet 15. cardinality = principle specifying that the last number in a counting sequence specifies the number of items in a set Information Processing how we take in, work on, & remember information (how we select/store/retrieve info) 2 major models: 1. Store Model Information is stored (held) in 3 parts of a processing system inborn & universal as info passes through the ‘stores’ we operate on it, and transform it using different mental strategies 2. Levels of Processing Model Sensory Register AKA: Sensory Memory (part 1 in Store Model) receives LARGE amounts of info from senses holds it for a very SHORT time *only when we pay attention to something is it maintained in the sensory register* Short-term Memory  holds limited amount of information for a few seconds (5-20) info that is currently being thought about when stop thinking about it, it disappears STM = working memory (Part 2 in store model) Not just storage info gets ‘worked on’ (processed) consciously activated the workbench of the memory system Ways to hold info in STM: 1. Rehearsal 2 types a) Maintenance Rehearsal repeat the info i.e. practice the longer it stays in STM, the greater the chance it will be transferred to LTM b) Elaborative Rehearsal associating info in STM with something you already know (something already in LTM) the more connections made between new info in STM & things already known, the more easily it will be moved into LTM 2. Organization chunking or grouping material into meaningful units capacity 5-9 distinct ‘bits’ each ‘bit’ can contain much info allows 5-9 groups of info rather than 5-9 pieces Long-term Memory (part 3 in store model) info is kept for long periods of time minutes to years capacity is limitless no forgetting, just not able to retrieve 3 types of LTM semantic memory facts, concepts, data, ideas episodic memory personal experiences procedural information info about how to do something Store model suggests definite distinction between STM and LTM Serial Position Effect Tendency to learn 1st few and last few items much better than those in the middle over time, LAST items decay (are forgotten), but 1st are retained 1st in LTM, last held more temporarily in STM; thus the distinction between the memory types Children’s way-finding (finding their way to and from places) Natural task for revealing planning memory & problem solving ability Illustrates: age-differences in info processing abilities & strategy use practical implication of serial position effect If children wander are they able to find their way home?’ how do they do it? Groups/Instructions: 1. no instructions 2. retrace; pay attention only 3. retrace; pay attention to nearby landmarks 4. 4. retrace; pay attention to distant landmarks Results: #1 age mattered more than type of instructions regardless of instructions, 12 yr olds better than 6 yr olds #2 neither 6 nor 12 yr olds benefitted from ‘pay attention’ only attention to specifics and strategy-use not spontaneous cues noted weren’t necessarily helpful/effective unreliable; overly common children can’t/don’t automatically – or effectively – use appropriate strategies #3 being told to pay attention to specific landmarks did help both age groups specific instruction in strategy use beneficial children need SPECIFIC INSTRUCTION in strategy use specific instruction does help) #4 12 yr olds helped by distant landmarks but not 6 yr olds age-related differences in strategy use age-related differences in ability strategy use improves with age sustained attention improves with age Parts of route that gave children most trouble: (i.e. wrong decisions at ‘choice points’)  Both 6 & 12 yr olds remembered beginning and end of route BETTER more likely to make wrong turns in the middle children’s memory for route shows SERIAL POSITION EFFECT implications for searching for lost children: concentrate on the middle of the route Levels of Processing Model (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) the way information is encoded affects how well it is remembered transfer of info to memory depends on depth to which it is processed The deeper the level, the easier/better the recall Process info in 3 ways Structural (appearance – ‘looks like’) Phonemic (‘sounds like’) Shallow memory decay Semantic (‘means’) Deep Elaborative rehearsal (elaboration) link to previous knowledge; make it meaningful better recall rather than 5-9 bit capacity, we have a certain amount of “attentional resources” have difficulty distributing our attention across many activities Automatization how well-learned (automatic) the cognitive requirements are when a cognitive process becomes automatic it takes up little attentional resources allowing one to do other tasks at same time No automaticity = heavy cognitive load (lots of working memory resources) difficult for children to multitask Cognitive load reduced by making things automatic Skills become automatic with instruction (direction) & practice SUMMARY Information Flow and the Multistore Model Information-processing theorists use the analogy of the mind as a computer with information flowing through a limited-capacity system composed of mental “hardware” and “software.” The multistore model depicts the human information-processing system as consisting of a sensory register, or store, to detect, or “log in,” input: a short-term store (STS), where information is stored temporarily until we can operate on it; and a “permanent,” or long-term store (LTS). Cognitive Processes and the Multistore Model  The active processes engaged in by which we plan, monitor, and control all phases of information processing are part of executive function. Executive function is important for regulating attention, exercising inhibitory control to allow children to ignore unnecessary information that does not require attention, and using strategies flexibly through set-shifting Developmental Differences in “Hardware”: Information-Processing Capacity Age differences in information-processing hardware have been examined by assessing the memory span and span of apprehension to evaluate the capacity of the STS. Although substantial age differences in the STS have been found, many developmental differences in memory can be attributed to increases in a knowledge base and how quickly children can process information (working memory capacity). Developmental Differences in “Software”: Strategies Research on developmental changes in information-processing software has shown children’s use of strategies—goal-directed operations used to aid task performance. The effective use of memory strategies, or mnemonics, increases with age. Frequently used memory strategies include rehearsal, semantic organization, and elaboration, Frequent findings include production deficiencies, in which children fail to produce a strategy spontaneously but can do so when instructed, and utilization deficiencies, in which children experience little or no benefit when they use a new strategy. Effective strategy choice is influenced by how much cognitive resources are needed and children’s metacognition about their own strategy use. Children of all ages have been found to use multiple and variable strategies in solving problems, a phenomenon that is explained by Siegler’s adaptive strategy choice model. The Development of Metacognition and Executive Control Processes Children’s understanding of what it means to think increases over the preschool and early school years as does their knowledge about their thinking (metacognition) and memory (metamemory). Few or no developmental differences are observed for implicit cognition (cognition that is performed without conscious awareness), in contrast to explicit cognition (cognition with awareness). Retention and the Development of Attention With age, the attention spans of children increase dramatically, owing in part to increasing myelinization of the central nervous system. Attention also becomes more planful and more selective with age as children steadily improve in their ability to seek and concentrate on task-relevant stimuli and to avoid being distracted by other “noise” in the environment. Alternative Models of Memory: Fuzzy Traces and Scripts Recent alternatives to the multistore model of information processing include fuzzy-trace theory, which claims that we process information at both a gist and a verbatim level. Schema theories emphasize how memories of events are manipulated and a script of routine actions is extracted with slot fillers for details from a specific event. The Development of Event Memory Personal, social, and cultural circumstances influence how memories are organized. Children from cultures where autonomy is the goal of development tend to recall events from their own perspective, and retrieve information related to their personal goals. In more collectivist cultures, children encode, retain, and retrieve more social aspects of events. Autobiographical memory improves dramatically during the preschool years. Parents play an important role in the growth of autobiographical memories by discussing past events, providing clues about what information is important to remember, and helping children to recall their experiences in rich personal narratives. Children as Eyewitnesses One aspect of autobiographical memory that has received much attention is age differences in eyewitness memory and suggestibility. As in general event memory, the accuracy of children’s eyewitness memory increases with age. Young children are generally more susceptible to suggestion than older children and are more likely to form false memories after repeated suggestions. Steps to increase the accuracy of children’s eyewitness testimony in legal proceedings focus on maximizing the completeness and accuracy of children’s narratives by probing with open-ended questions tied to cues provided by children. The Development of Analogical Reasoning Reasoning is a special type of problem solving that requires making an inference. Analogical reasoning involves applying what you know about one set of elements to infer relations about different elements. Using knowledge of relational similarity improves along with improvements in executive control processes such as working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility. The Development of Number and Arithmetic Skills Even infants are capable of processing and using quantitative information, and toddlers have already acquired a rudimentary understanding of ordinal relationships. Counting begins once children begin to talk, and preschoolers gradually construct such basic mathematical understandings as the principle of cardinality. Early arithmetic strategies usually involve counting out loud, but eventually children perform simple arithmetic operations in their heads, using increasingly sophisticated arithmetic strategies. Children of any age actually use a variety of strategies to solve math problems, as described by Siegler’s adaptive strategy choice model. There are sizable cultural variations in mathematics performance and the use of arithmetic strategies. Unschooled children develop arithmetic strategies that they apply quite skillfully to the practical problems they encounter. Among those who are taught arithmetic strategies at school, East Asian children consistently outperform their North American age-mates, owing in part to the structure of their languages and to instructional practices that help them retrieve math facts and acquire computational skills and other mathematical knowledge. Evaluating the Information-Processing Perspective  Despite its many strengths, the information-processing perspective has been criticized for largely ignoring neurological, evolutionary, and sociocultural influences on cognitive growth; for failing to provide a broad, integrative theory of children’s intelligence; and for underestimating the richness and diversity of human cognitive activities. Connectionist Approaches to Cognitive Development Connectionism involves using computational modelling to simulate how the brain processes and learns information or concepts. The models contain networks comprising processing units and connections where the processing units are roughly similar to neurons and the connections are similar to synapses. Simulations have provided an alternative means of understanding and explaining how cognitive development occurs. It is necessary to be methodical and thorough when making choices about factors and rules in neural network models Lesson 8: Language Development: Terms 1. language = a small number of individually meaningless symbols (sounds, letters, gestures) that can be combined according to agreed-on rules to produce an infinite number of messages. 2. communication = the process by which one organism transmits information to and influences another. 3. vocables = unique patterns of sound that a prelinguistic infant uses to represent objects, actions, or events. 4. psycholinguists = those who study the structure and development of children’s language 5. morphology = the rules governing the formation of meaningful words from sounds 6. sociolinguistic knowledge = culturally specific rules specifying how language should be structured and used in particular social contexts 7. language acquisition device (LAD) = Chomsky’s term for the innate knowledge of grammar that humans were said to possess, which might enable young children to infer the rules governing others’ speech and to use these rules to produce language 8. language-making capacity (LMC) = hypothesized set of specialized linguistic processing skills that enable children to analyze speech and to detect phonological, semantic, and syntactical relationships 9. interactionist theory = the notion that biological factors and environmental influences interact to determine the course of language development 10. expansions = responding to a child’s ungrammatical utterance with a grammatically improved form of that statement. 11. recasts = responding to a child’s ungrammatical utterance with a nonrepetitive statement that is grammatically correct 12. coos = vowel-like sounds that young infants repeat over and over during periods of contentment. 13. canonical babbles = vowel–consonant combinations that infants begin to produce at about 6 to 9 months of age 14. holophrastic period = the period when the child’s speech consists of one-word utterances, some of which are thought to be holophrases 15. fast-mapping = process of linking a word with its referent after hearing the word once or twice Language development  more than a purely cognitive achievement, also involves social growth children learn a specific language, with all of its cultural meanings Acquiring language involves both cognitive & social development Acquiring language is considered the BRIDGE between infancy and childhood Theories of Language Development Behaviourists (i.e. B. F. Skinner) language learning is: result of reinforcement for imitating other speakers of the language NO DIFFERENT from any other type of learning the result of experience and reinforcement from the environment Through positive and negative reinforcement, children are ‘conditioned’ to use language correctly Nativists (Noam Chomsky) innate ability to look for structure & grammar in language Language acquisition device (LAD) brain mechanism specialized in detecting & learning the rules of language language acquisition device (LAD) inborn biological structure (prewired neural system) ‘hard wiring’ contains rules for organizing language Universal grammar theory ability to learn grammar hard wired into the brain triggered by verbal input provides the ‘connection system’ that allows us to pick up language children are born “prepared to learn any language and to recognize language patterns”. (Chomsky, 1993) linguistic ability manifests itself without being taught language learning is very different from any other type of learning inborn neural structures that equip us for language learning = ’language loop Interactionist perspective language acquisition requires BOTH innate abilities and experience with language Nature: biologically prepared to acquire lang biological maturation (brain growth) cognitive development impacts language learning Nurture: environment/context important experience, modeling, reinforcement adult interactions are key; conversation, child-directed speech, eye-contact, Reading, reading aloud 5 Components of Language 5 interdependent aspects of language learning of each one facilitates learning of the others 1. Phonology (sounds) phonemes (basic units of sound) Phonological awareness = ability to distinguish sounds (b, d, t,) produce sounds th, sl, y, v, j (harder to say) combine them into understandable ‘units of speech’ (th, ch, wh,) the rules about the structure and sequencing of speech sounds and speech patterns & the ability to produce those how we make and combine sounds how to pronounce, sound out, play/rhyme sounds 2. Morphology (words) rules that specify how words are formed from sounds vrow vs. grow rules about the use of ‘markers’ to indicate/change meaning of words/sentences includes number, tense, case, person, gender, girl vs. girls girl’s or girls’ ‘ed’ or ‘ing’ and knowledge about exceptions to the rules!!! Common error - over-regularization = over apply the rules of language runned; gotted; mices 3. Semantics (meaning) what words and combinations of words MEAN destination = “last stop” over/under extensions Over-extension – use one word to refer to more things than it should Under-extension – use one word to refer to fewer things than it should 4. Syntax rules for organizing words into phrases and sentences sentence structure word order It is broken; broken is it; broken it is Grammar (overall structure)  rules for combining words in meaningful ways includes: syntax, morphology 5. Pragmatics (language by context) the subtle aspects of interactive / social communication when to speak turn-taking how to stay on topic how to express oneself clearly how to interpret/understand what others say how to use gestures, tone, context cues to help meaning Pragmatics the rituals of interaction sociolinguistic knowledge How we use language in different settings with different people based on background knowledge great vs ‘sick’ to parents/peers kids vs children in social/academic settings vs social etiquette of speech how to speak to an adult/teacher/peer how to greet & leave a situation Lesson 8: Language Development Pt.2 Weird English words Borborygmus - Stomach rumbling. Brouhaha - An uproar or noisy response. Canoodle - Hugging and kissing. Cantankerous - Bad tempered or grumpy. Crudivore - Someone who eats raw food. Discombobulate - To confuse someone. Doozy - Something really good. Fartlek - A training system for runners. Flummox - To perplex or bewilder. Gobbledygook - Meaningless or nonsensical language. Kerfuffle - A mild commotion or fuss. Klutz - A clumsy or foolish person. Lickety-split - As quickly as possible. Lollygag - To dawdle or spend time aimlessly. Mollycoddle - To treat someone leniently. Pratfall - A fall on the buttocks or an embarrassing action.  Rambunctious - Uncontrollably excitable or exuberant. Shenanigan - Silly behaviour. Skullduggery - Deception or trickery. Learning vocabulary the body of words used in a particular language doubles every 6 months between ages 2-4 10,000 words by age 5/6 By this time, basics of language mastered 2 key processes in language development: 1. Receptive language (Comprehension) child’s understanding of the spoken, signed, written word 2. Expressive language (Production) what the child says, signs, or writes Language comprehension develops slightly ahead of language production Stages of language acquisition definite & consistent developmental progression to language learning Pre-natal language exposure discriminate speech from other sounds more sensitive to their own 1st language distinguish mother’s voice from others Prenatal language perception/hearing essential for language acquisition Pre-linguistic stages: Newborn nonverbal communication (0-3 months) Crying, body gestures, eye contact, ‘looking behaviour’, facial expressions Cooing (2-3 months) prelinguistic vocalizations ‘mouth sounds’ vowel sounds ooooooo aaaaaaa vocal play squealing, growling, ‘yelling’ gurgling Babbling (7 months) production of single consonant sounds ‘m’ ‘b’ ‘d’ string together sequences of single sounds,  “m-m-m” or “b-b-b” Babbling combine consonants with vowels 1. One consonant & vowel at a time “ma,” “da,” “du,” “bi” 2. reduplicated (reduplicative) babbling repetition of consonant vowel comb da-da-da-da wa-wa-wa ab-ab-ab mu-mu-mu 3. non-reduplicative (variegated) babbling varied sequences of consonant vowel combinations “ba-du-ba-du.”ma-moo-mee Babbling 1st syllables Early babbling sounds universal 8-10 months becomes distinctive Reflects language exposed to Exploratory – no meaning Experimenting with the sounds of the language being learned Linguistic stages: protowords ba da One-word (holophrasic) stage (1 – 1.5 yrs) Isolated words connected to meaning Can refer to a range of meanings ‘one word to communicate big meanings’ ball = - ball - give me the ball - look at the ball - where is the ball?’ 3 functions: Express emotions: “oh,” “bad” Request a desired action:  “up,” “down,” “gimme” Name objects: “baba” (bottle), “truck,” “doggie,” “mine” naming explosion Two-word stage (1.5-2.5 yrs) string together 2 words to produce meaning telegraphic speech abbreviated; lacks grammar have 50 words 2 words can convey: Location: Book there Nonexistence: All gone Negation: Not dog Possession: Mine Candy Attribution: Big Car Agent-action: Mama go Action-location: Sit chair Action-direct object: Hit you Action-indirect object: Give dada Question: Where ball? Multi-Word Stage (2- 2.5+) multiple word strings utterance length increases more grammar sentences Imperative (command) Give me my toy. Declarative (Relay information) That’s my toy truck 4-5 yrs Coordination and subordination sentences Coordination (2 clauses joined in a symmetrical relation) I am tall, but she is short. Subordination (2 clauses joined in a non- symmetrical relation) When I am older, I am going to be bigger Language Development in the School Years 4 cornerstones of language and literacy listening, speaking, reading, writing intertwined; develop in an integrated manner As children get older they grasp/apply more advanced aspects of: : semantics sarcasm, idioms Under the weather; Out on a limb; hold your horses pragmatics (social etiquette of speech) appropriate language, perspective of other speakers how to tell a joke, interrupt, keep conversations going attending to multiple aspects of conversation paying attention to body language and tone and words (joking/serious/mad/happy???) Older children develop metalinguistic awareness the ability to think and talk about language become aware of their listeners and how they affect the choice of language used make adjustments depending on audience a peer? adult? smaller child? elderly person? varied intonation, tone, volume, pace illocutionary intent (when words and messages don’t match) do you want a drink?.... could mean ‘I want one.... could you please get me one.... The role of experience: language dev occurs In every day living! Occurs best when: speaker has significant relationship with child engages in ongoing ‘everyday’ interactions in ways that are meaningful to the child Ways to stimulate language dev talk to children! value their language (don’t criticize) read to them play / games sharing time model engaged interaction joint attention shared gazing/eye contact is KEY direct eye contact child’s brain activity patterns mirror the speaker’s!!! OUR DIRECT GAZE the signal that makes babies tune in and learn Which way should I face??? stroller/child facing adult  DOUBLES the amount of conversation talking doubles when child is carried or walks Neuro-psych findings: babies in rear (parent)-facing strollers have more advanced language skills than babies in front-facing strollers should face rear/adults for first 3 years! Summary: The Five Components of Language Children acquire five aspects of language: phonology, a knowledge of the language’s sound system morphology, rules specifying how words are formed from sounds semantics, an understanding of the meaning of bound morphemes, free morphemes (or words), and sentences syntax, the rules that specify how words are combined to produce sentences pragmatics, the principles governing how language is to be used Theories of Language Development There are three major theoretical perspectives on language acquisition. Learning theorists believe: Children acquire language as they imitate others’ speech and are reinforced for grammatically correct utterances, but this is unsupported by research. Adults use child-directed speech and reshape their primitive sentences with expansions and recasts. Children will acquire language as long as they have partners with whom to converse, even without these environmental supports. Nativists believe: Human beings are innately endowed with biological linguistic processing capabilities (a language acquisition device or language-making capacity) that function most efficiently prior to puberty. This means that children require nothing more than being exposed to speech in order to learn to speak the language they hear. Nativists identify linguistic universals and observe that language functions are served by Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas of the brain. Deaf children of hearing parents, and other children exposed to ungrammatical pidgins, may create languages of their own. Both first- and second-language learning seem to proceed more smoothly during the sensitive period prior to puberty. Nativists admit that it is not clear how children sift through verbal input and make the crucial discoveries that further their linguistic competencies. Interactionist perspective proponents believe: Children are biologically prepared to acquire language. Instead of a specialized linguistic processor being innate, humans have a nervous system that gradually matures and predisposes them to develop similar ideas at about the same age. Biological maturation affects cognitive development, which in turn influences language development.  Environment plays a crucial role in language learning, because companions continually introduce new linguistic rules and concepts. The Prelinguistic Period: Before Language Infants are well prepared for language learning: Development during the prelinguistic phase allows them to discriminate speechlike sounds and become sensitive to a wider variety of phonemes than are adults. They are sensitive to intonational cues from birth. By 7 to 10 months of age, infants are already segmenting others’ speech into phrases and wordlike units. Infants begin cooing by age 2 months and start to babble by age 6 to 9 months. They later match the intonation of their babbles to tonal qualities of the language they hear and may produce their own vocables to signify meaning. Infants less than 1 year old have already learned that people take turns while vocalizing and that gestures can be used to communicate and share meaning with companions. Once infants begin to understand individual words, their receptive language is ahead of their productive language. The Holophrastic Period: One Word at a Time In the holophrase (or one-word) phase: Infants speak in holophrases and spend several months expanding their vocabularies one word at a time. Infants talk mostly about moving or manipulable objects that interest them. Infants show a vocabulary spurt (naming explosion) between 18 and 24 months of age. Most children in Western cultures develop a referential style of language, whereas a smaller number of Western infants and many infants from social harmony–emphasizing cultures adopt an expressive style of language. Toddlers use social and contextual cues to fast-map words onto objects, actions, and attributes. Other strategies, or processing constraints, such as the object scope constraint, mutual exclusivity, lexical context, and syntactical bootstrapping help toddlers figure out what new words mean. Toddlers still frequently make such semantic errors as overextensions and underextensions. The Telegraphic Period: From Holophrases to Simple Sentences At 18 to 24 months of age, toddlers begin to produce two- and three-word sentences known as telegraphic speech because they omit grammatical markers and smaller, less important words. Although telegraphic sentences are not grammatical by adult standards, they are more than random word combinations. In their earliest sentences, children follow certain rules of word order when combining words and also express the same categories of meaning (semantic relations). Toddlers become sensitive to pragmatic constraints, including the realization that speakers must be more directive and elaborate when a listener doesn’t share their knowledge. They are also learning certain sociolinguistic prescriptions, such as the need to be polite when making requests. Language Learning during the Preschool Period  During the preschool period (ages 2½ to 5), the child’s language becomes much more similar to an adult’s. Children begin to add grammatical morphemes such as the -s for plurality, the -ed for past tense, the -ing for present progressive, articles, prepositions, and auxiliary verbs to their increasingly long utterances. Though children may overregularize grammatical markers, there is a striking uniformity in the order in which these morphemes appear. The preschool period is the time when a child learns rules of transformational grammar that will enable him or her to change declarative statements into questions, negations, imperatives, relative clauses, and compound sentences. By the time they enter school, children have mastered most of the syntactical rules of their native language and can produce a wide variety of sophisticated, adultlike messages. Preschool children are beginning to understand such pragmatic lessons as the need to tailor their messages to a listener’s ability to comprehend if they hope to be understood. Children’s referential communication skills are not well developed, although they have begun to detect at least some of the uninformative messages they receive and to ask for clarification if needed. Language Learning during Middle Childhood Middle childhood and early adolescence is a period of linguistic refinement. Children learn subtle exceptions to grammatical rules and begin to understand even the most complex syntactical structures of their native language. Vocabulary grows rapidly as children acquire morphological knowledge and metalinguistic awareness. School-age children display much better referential communication skills as they attend more carefully to literal meanings of ambiguous utterances and are more likely to clarify the ambiguous messages they send and receive. Cognitive development, the growth of sociolinguistic knowledge, and opportunities to communicate with linguistically immature siblings and peers all contribute to the development of communication skills. Bilingualism: Learning More than One Language Bilingualism is becoming increasingly common in Canada, and children exposed early and regularly to two languages can easily acquire them both. There are cognitive advantages to bilingualism, and recent bilingual education programs (core language instruction and immersion) appear to promote language skills and self-perceived academic and social competencies. Lesson 9: Emotional Development Terms 1. empathy = the ability to experience the same emotions that someone else is experiencing. 2. behavioural inhibition = a temperamental attribute reflecting a tendency to withdraw from unfamiliar people or situations 3. easy temperament = temperamental profile in which the child quickly establishes regular routines, is generally good-natured, and adapts easily to novelty  4. difficult temperament = temperamental profile in which the child is irregular in daily routines and adapts slowly to new experiences, often responding negatively and intensely 5. slow-to-warm-up temperament = temperamental profile in which the child is inactive and moody and displays mild passive resistance to new routines and experiences 6. “goodness-of-fit” model = Thomas and Chess’s notion that development is likely to be optimized when parents’ child-rearing practices are sensitively adapted to the child’s temperamental characteristics. 7. asocial phase (of attachment) = approximately the first 6 weeks of life, in which infants respond in an equally favourable way to interesting social and nonsocial stimuli 8. phase of indiscriminate attachments = period between 6 weeks and 6 to 7 months of age in which infants prefer social to nonsocial stimulation 9. phase of specific attachment = period between 7 and 9 months of age when infants are attached to one close companion (usually the mother) 10. phase of multiple attachments = period when infants are forming attachments to companions other than their primary attachment object. 11. secure attachment = an infant–caregiver bond in which the child welcomes contact with a close companion and uses this person as a secure base from which to explore the environment 12. resistant attachment = an insecure infant–caregiver bond, characterized by strong separation protest and a tendency of the child to remain near but resist contact initiated by the caregiver, particularly after a separation 13. avoidant attachment = an insecure infant–caregiver bond, characterized by little separation protest and a tendency of the child to avoid or ignore the caregiver 14. disorganized/disoriented attachment = an insecure infant–caregiver bond, characterized by the infant’s dazed appearance on reunion or a tendency to first seek and then abruptly avoid the caregiver. Temperament core qualities response patterns styles of interacting present at birth Built in patterns Shape an infant’s understanding (interpretation) of his/her experiences AND Affect the way others respond to him/her Personality enduring individual differences in behaviour & characteristics patterns that emerge from our experiences and interactions with others Personality differences rest on a basic emotional substrate i.e. temperament “the matrix from which later child and adult personality develops” Temperament sets the basic pattern of responding, but the eventual outcome  i.e. personality is the result of that pattern affected/influenced by life experiences Views on Temperament: Buss & Plomin (1984) 3 characteristics emotionality activity level sociability Rothbart & Bates (1998) stable individual differences in quality & intensity of emotional reaction, activity level, attention, & emotional self-regulation Thomas & Chess (1977) 9 dimensions of temp cluster in predictable ways 3 profiles of temperament easy difficult slow-to-warm 6 dimensions that characterize temperament 1. fearful distress 2. irritable distress 3. positive affect 4. activity level 5. attention span/persistence 6. rhythmicity Temperament = relatively stable tendencies present at birth BUT (patterns or profiles) don’t necessarily remain “Goodness of fit’ model: (Thomas & Chess) when parenting styles are attuned to the temperamental qualities of the child, the child’s temperament can be further supported or successfully managed between adult’s parenting/teaching style and the child’s temperament can make a child seem easier or harder to raise/deal with when parenting style is attuned to child’s temperament the needs of the child are supported parenting is easier when parenting style are not attuned to child’s temperament child faces continual challenge parenting is harder interaction of our temperament & our environment Attachment Konrad Lorenz Imprinting (geese) formation of bond with parent in period immediately after birth Imprinting: instinctual persistent relatively permanent crucial for survival protects & trains Ethological theory John Bowlby born with pre-programmed behaviours that function to keep parents close attachment based on built-in behaviours in BOTH the infant and caregiver initiated by pre-programmed behaviours maintained by ‘pleasurable environmental events’ interplay of both heredity and environment 1st most influential bond between infant and its mother (primary caregiver) Attachment characterized by strong interdependence intense mutual feelings vital emotional ties Attachment behaviours behaviours that promote nearness to a specific person to whom the infant is attached signalling (crying, smiling, vocalizing) orienting (looking) making movements related to another person (following, approaching) engaging in active physical contact (climbing up, hugging, clinging, snuggling) indicate attachment only when directed toward 1 or 2 specific individuals For attachment to occur: Infant must ACT  ‘invites’ nurturing responses Caregiver must respond tends to baby’s needs communicates with baby Process is mutual Schaffer & Emerson (1964) Studied infant-caregiver interactions, noting: Stranger Anxiety Separation Anxiety Social Referencing 4 Phases of Attachment regular pattern/sequence in developing attachment foundation for future attachments 1. Asocial phase (birth to 6 wks) behaviours that encourage adult to ‘stay close’ directed to all not social (more survival oriented) 1. Phase of indiscriminate attachments (6 wks - 7 months) enjoy attention/interaction with anyone orient toward people distinguish mother; respond differentially to her but do not cry when separated still ‘indiscriminate’ not true attachment 1. Specific Attachment phase (7-9 months) try to keep close to those they have discriminated/ set apart shown through stranger anxiety separation anxiety an evolutionarily adapted mechanism that allows the child to feel closer to the adult attachment figure for the sense of security (Bowlby, 2012) use of secure base universal parallels object permanence Infants who have not yet achieved object permanence do not show separation anxiety 1. Phase of Multiple Attachments (9-18mo +) form attachments to other (multiple) people hierarchy; vary in strength/importance independence ↑ stranger /separation anxiety ↓ attachments most likely form with those who respond accurately to infant's signals Sensitive responsiveness (interactional synchrony)  when caregiver & infant are in-tune reflecting the actions/emotions of each other in a coordinated (synchronized) way Early attachment forms basis for all future relationships Internal Working Model Set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures their likelihood of providing support during stressful times, and one’s interaction with those figures Loss and separation Orphanages few interactions; emotion; mutual responses withdrawn noncommunicative nonemotional developmental delays in all areas difficulty establishing later relationships Need 1 primary caregiver to ensure infants develop capacity for attachment Children who have formed a full attachment relationship respond differently to separation from primary caregiver than those who have never formed an attachment Bowlby’s Stages of Separation 1. Protest 2. Despair 3. Detachment Children need patience / understanding warmth / nurturing prototype of later behaviour need opportunity to work through & EXPRESS emotional reactions Bowlby: Reciprocal relationship stage More reciprocal understanding between infant & caregiver cognitive dev allows understanding of why parent leaves factors influencing absence that they will return mutually work out appropriate separation behaviour ritual/routine for separations Most children form attachment in 1st yr of life  sequence of phases in attachment dev is consistent BUT what the attachment relationship is like, varies! depends on child’s temperament parenting style & personality social/cultural values etc. Patterns of Early Relationships Quality of Attachment (Mary Ainsworth) procedure to measure attachment differences trigger exploratory or attachment-seeking behaviours identify patterns of responses across children Strange Situation Wanna see if infant is exploring the room Wants to see if the child involves the parent Is the child going to show separating anxiety When the parent comes back, does the child exhibit any attachment styles Patterns of Attachment 1. Secure attachment (type B) explore use mother as secure base wariness, but not distress anxious when left, seek contact when return; appear happy affected and comforted by mother 2. Insecure Avoidant attachment (type A) explore; don’t involve mother not wary not upset when left do NOT seek contact upon return independent and indifferent to mother’s behaviour 3. Insecure Ambivalent attachment (type C) keep close, don’t explore extreme wariness extreme distress ambivalent/resistant approach mother, but reject contact or show aggression clingy, but not comforted by mother In North America: 65% secure 20% avoidant  10% resistant (ambivalent) 5% ‘different’ pattern Additional category: Disorganized / Disoriented (type D) contradictory behaviour seek closeness, but afraid unusual behaviours ‘freezing’ environmental impacts parenting style/conditions, abuse, neglect Other measures of attachment: Q-sort Adult Attachment Interview Home interview Why classify attachment relationships? Different types are associated with (predict) different types of behaviour later in life Secure: show more positive development social competence unlikely to have beh. problems well liked less likely to be bullies or victims Why classlify attachment relationships? Insecure: show higher risks of developing variety of problems aggression noncompliance social withdrawal excessive whining/tantrums difficulties with social interaction Disorganized/disoriented: especially prone to behavioural disorders The Still Face experiment Edward Tronick (1975) after 3 min with a non-responsive expressionless mother (parent), infant quickly becomes serious/wary then distressed make repeated attempts to get the interaction into its usual reciprocal pattern; when these fail infant withdraws, orients away from parent hopeless facial expression Emotional development occurs in social interaction frequent unheeded ‘bids for connection’ impact emotional responses, expectations, interactions Implications for maternal depression  neglect/abuse screen time SUMMARY Emotional Development At birth, babies display interest, distress, disgust, and contentment. Anger, sadness, surprise, and fear normally appear by the middle of the first year. Embarrassment, envy, pride, guilt, and shame emerge in the second (or third) year, after children achieve self-recognition and self-evaluation. To socialize emotions, parents model positive emotions, attend carefully to their infants’ pleasant feelings, and are less responsive to infants’ negative emotional displays. Emotional self-regulation begins by the end of the first year. The ability to regulate emotions develops very slowly. Toddlers gradually move from being dependent on others to regulate their emotions to being able to regulate emotions on their own. Elementary school children gradually become able to comply with culturally defined emotional display rules. By 8 to 10 months of age, infants are capable of social referencing. The ability to identify and interpret others’ emotions improves throughout childhood, aided by cognitive development and conversations about emotions. Infants’ and children’s emotional displays promote social contact with caregivers. Understanding others’ emotions also helps children infer how to feel, think, or behave in uncertain situations. Temperament and Development Temperament is a person’s tendency to respond in predictable ways to environmental events. Temperament is influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Such components of temperament as activity level, irritability, sociability, and behavioural inhibition are moderately stable over time. Temperamental attributes often cluster in easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up profiles. Children with difficult and slow-to-warm-up temperaments are at greater risk of experiencing adjustment problems, depending on the goodness-of-fit between parenting and temperamental attributes. Attachment and Development Infants form affectional ties to their caregivers during the first year of life. These attachments are reciprocal relationships. Parents’ initial bonding with their infant builds in strength as they gear their behaviour to the infant’s social signals and establish synchronized routines. Over time, infants associate other pleasurable sensations often associated with but not limited to feeding with their caregiver, who thus becomes a secondary reinforcer. How Do Infants Become Attached? Infants pass through an asocial phase and a phase of indiscriminate attachment before forming their first true attachments at 7 to 9 months of age during the phase of specific attachment.  Attached infants use their attachment object as a secure base for exploration and eventually enter the phase of multiple attachments. Theories of Attachment The cognitive-developmental notion that attachments depend on cognitive development has received some support. Ethological theory, which argues that humans have preadapted characteristics that predispose them to form attachments, has become especially influential in recent years. Attachment-Related Fears of Infancy Stranger anxiety and separation anxiety stem from infants’ wariness of strange situations and their inability to explain who strangers are and the whereabouts of absent companions. These two fears usually decline in the second year as toddlers mature intellectually and venture away from their secure bases to explore. Individual Differences in Attachment Quality The strange situation is used to assess the quality of attachments of 1- to 2-year-olds. Four attachment classifications have been identified: secure, resistant, avoidant, and disorganized/disoriented. The distribution of attachment classifications varies across cultures and often reflects cultural differences in child-rearing practices. Fathers as Caregivers Research on fathers as caregivers suggests They become emotionally attached to infants. They can be playmates or caretakers. They contribute to the child’s positive social development. Factors That Influence Attachment Security Sensitive, responsive caregiving is associated with the development of secure attachments. Inconsistent, neglectful, overintrusive, and abusive caregiving predict insecure attachments. Environmental factors such as poverty and a stormy marital relationship also contribute to insecure attachments. Infant characteristics and temperamental attributes may also influence attachment quality by affecting the character of caregiver–infant interactions. Caregiving may determine whether attachments are secure or insecure, and child temperament determines the kind of insecurity displayed by a child who received insensitive caregiving. Attachment and Later Development Secure attachment during infancy predicts intellectual curiosity and social competence later in childhood. Infants may form internal working models of themselves and others that are often stable over time and influence their reactions to people and challenges for years to come.  Parents’ working models correspond closely with those of their children and contribute to the attachments infants form. Children’s working models can change. A secure attachment history is no guarantee of positive adjustment later in life, nor are insecure attachments a certain indication of poor life outcomes. Lesson 9b: Self Development Terms: 1. proprioceptive feedback = sensory information from the muscles, tendons, and joints that helps us locate the position of our body (or body parts) in space 2. present self = early self-representation in which 2- and 3-year-olds recognize current representations of self but are unaware that past self-representations or self-relevant events have implications for the present. 3. extended self = more mature self-representation, emerging between ages 3½ and 5 years, in which children are able to integrate past, current, and unknown future self-representations into a notion of a self that endures over time 4. mastery motivation = an inborn motive to explore, understand, and control our environment 5. intrinsic achievement orientation = a desire to achieve in order to satisfy one’s personal needs for competence or mastery 6. incremental view or growth mindset of ability = belief that one’s ability can be improved through increased effort and practice. 7. entity view or fixed mindset of ability = belief that one’s ability is a highly stable trait that is not influenced much by effort or practice 8. mastery orientation = a tendency to persist at challenging tasks because of a belief that one has high ability and/or that earlier failures can be overcome by trying harder 9. process-oriented praise = praise of effort expended to formulate good ideas and effective problem-solving strategies; this praise fosters learning goals in achievement contexts. 10. learning goal = state of affairs in which one’s primary objective in an achievement context is to increase one’s skills or abilities 11. person perception = the process by which individuals attribute characteristics or traits to other people Michael Lewis (1990; 1991) Infants (8 months) beginning to develop ‘sense of self’ who is ‘like me’? who is ‘different from me’? Model of ‘who am I?” emerges same time as they are developing an attachment relationship 2 Parts to Sense of self: 1. the Separate Self are separate from everyone else developed in early months by noticing they have an effect on things (i.e. circular reactions) begin to realize “I am doing things” object permanence 2. Self Awareness  object with properties & qualities learn through experiences with the world self has properties such as sex size name qualities shyness/boldness/coordination/speed see self ‘as if from outside’ Called ‘The Categorical Self’ Self awareness self-recognition inferred ‘rouge test’ AKA mirror test Put in front of mirror What do they do? make faces play with the ‘other baby Rouge test: red spot put on nose What happens when they look in the mirror again? reach for own or the baby’s nose? Reaching for own nose indicates self-recognition AKA Mirror recognition Self-awareness: when refer to self by name (self-naming) in pictures This self-recognition requires language mirror recognition & self-naming 18 mo – 2 yrs behaviour change ‘mine’ ‘do things by myself’ ‘terrible two’s’ self-will is natural outgrowth of self-awareness Some things to think about (and look for in observations) How would you recognize or reinforce a child’s emerging sense of self? What do you think might happen to a child who is not allowed this exploration/development of the self? The Social self Self as a ‘player in the social game’  roles & scripts routines of play patterns of interaction with other people helper; boss; sister; brother Social cognition (knowing about others) Self-understanding understanding of others person perception Selman’s theory of social perspective-taking Defining ‘who I am’ from toddlerhood: qualities / categories 1st 2 categories: sex & age dichotomous dimensions either..... or..... big or small; good or bad during childhood: Ability to see oneself as having both qualities in different situations I’m silly when I’m with my friends and I’m serious when I’m in school see that we have varying degrees of each quality in different situations, I’m usually silly with my friends, and sometimes with my family, but never at school emerges as children get older Self-concept the characteristics, abilities, attitudes a person sees their self as having Self-esteem how a person evaluates their self-concept Development of self concept by age 6 range of characteristics physical attributes possessions actions concrete Are young children unable to discern psychological characteristics? Eder (1989; 1990)  Young children do not generate psychological qualities, but can respond to questions involving them do they fully understand these notions? likely shows the beginnings of understanding that precede ability to knowingly express them Self-concept in middle childhood: evolve from external to INNER qualities I am smart... interesting... curious SHIFT to more psychological/abstract concepts more complexity include characteristics related to occupation, beliefs, interpersonal style Development of Self esteem Susan Harter (1987; 1990) 4-7 yrs: specific/separate areas of competence multiple areas of esteem not overall self-worth global self-esteem emerges around age 7 Self concept & esteem in elementary aged children School years = much focus on becoming capable/competent develop sense of industry (Erikson) academic self-concept Begin school as ‘learning optimists’ then.... social comparison educational evaluations Impact of negative evaluations? expectation of success ↓ belief in ability & self-evaluation ↓ The Downward Spiral of Self-Esteem Leads to educational & self-fulfilling prophecies Self-fulfilling prophecy Child holds negative self-belief causing them to act in ways that conform to that belief and thereby actually confirm it. Educational self-fulfilling prophecy teacher holds an expectation about a student, and through social interaction, causes the student to behave in ways that confirm the expectation How do we counteract the downward spiral? Encourage participation in NON-academic areas build OTHER areas of self-esteem Ways of promoting development of Academic Self-concept and Self-esteem 1. accept children AS THEY ARE all are valuable; all have skills 2. avoid setting up competitions among children if only the most able have a chance to win 3. avoid unnecessary distinctions among children (i.e. ability groupings) 4. make it clear there are many valuable skills many ways to succeed 5. praise progress & effort, not just achievement Building self esteem through praise praise only?? avoid negative feedback/constructive criticism?? Focusing only on the good does NOT improve children’s self-views/feelings Praise and self-esteem Not all praise actually boosts self esteem!! AVOID false praise’ that’s the best; that’s perfect ‘person-praise’ you’re so smart; PROVIDE ‘process-oriented praise’ praise effort praise how they’ve done something that was an effective strategy/colour choice. focus on the aspects they’ve mastered (not how smart they are) Process-oriented praise results in children having a more enduring, and realistic sense of esteem more adaptive learning skills Increased motivation, endurance, resilience !! SUMMARY The development of social cognition deals with how children’s understanding of the self and other people changes with age. Development of the Self-Concept Most developmentalists believe that infants come to distinguish themselves from the external environment over the first 2 to 6 months of life. By 18 to 24 months of age, toddlers display true self-recognition—a sense of a present self, which gradually evolves into a conception of extended self, or a self that is stable over time.  Toddlers also classify themselves along socially significant dimensions such as age and sex, forming a categorical self. The self-descriptions of 3- to 5-year-olds are typically very concrete, focusing mostly on their physical features, possessions, and the activities they can perform. By about age 8, children begin to describe themselves in terms of their inner and enduring psychological attributes. Core aspects of the self-concept tend to be personal characteristics among people in individualistic societies but social/relational attributes among people in collectivist (or communal) societies. Self-Esteem: The Evaluative Component of Self Self-esteem begins as infants form positive or negative working models of self from their interactions with caregivers. By age 8, children’s self-evaluations become reflections of how others would evaluate their behavioural and social competencies. Except for a temporary decline that some children experience with the transition to middle and high school, self-esteem is reasonably stable over time. Warm, responsive, democratic parenting fosters self-esteem; aloof or controlling parenting styles seem to undermine it. Peers influence one another’s self-esteem through social comparison during the elementary school years. Development of Achievement Motivation and Academic Self-Concept Infants display an inborn mastery motive. Children differ in achievement motivation—their willingness to strive for success and to master new challenges. Infants who are securely attached and raised in a stimulating home environment are likely to develop strong achievement motivation. Parents foster achievement motivation by encouraging their children to do things on their own and by focusing on a child’s successes. Peers may either foster or undermine parents’ efforts to encourage academic achievement. Academic self-concepts depend on children’s achievement attributions. Mastery-oriented children and adolescents have very positive achievement expectancies: they attribute their successes to stable internal causes and their failures to unstable causes. They adopt an incremental view of ability. Helpless children often stop trying after a failure because they display an entity view of ability and attribute their failures to a lack of ability. Children who are often criticized for their lack of ability adopt performance goals rather than learning goals and are at risk of becoming helpless. Helpless children can become more mastery-oriented if they are taught (through attribution retraining) that their failures can be attributed to unstable causes they can overcome by trying harder. The Other Side of Social Cognition: Knowing about Others Children younger than 7 or 8 generally describe friends and acquaintances in the same concrete, observable terms that they use to describe the self.  Elementary school children become more attuned to regularities in their own and others’ conduct (the behavioural comparisons phase) and later begin to rely on stable psychological constructs, or traits, to describe these patterns (the psychological constructs phase). The growth of children’s social-cognitive abilities is related to cognitive development in general and to the emergence of role-taking skills in particular. To truly “know” a person, one must be able to assume her perspective and understand her thoughts, feelings, motives, and intentions. Social interactions—particularly equal-status contacts with friends and peers—are crucial to social-cognitive development. Social interactions contribute indirectly by fostering the growth of role-taking skills. Social interactions contribute directly by providing the experiences children need to learn what others are like. Lesson 10A: Gender Development: Terms: 1. expressive role = social prescription, usually directed toward females, that one should be cooperative, kind, nurturing, and sensitive to the needs of others 2. instrumental role = social prescription, usually directed toward males, that one should be dominant, independent, assertive, competitive, and goal oriented 3. self-fulfilling prophecy = phenomenon whereby people cause others to act in accordance with the expectations they have about those others 4. gender segregation = children’s tendency to associate with same-sex playmates and to think of the other sex as an out-group 5. testicular feminization syndrome (TFS) = genetic anomaly in which a male fetus is insensitive to the effects of male sex hormones and develops female-like external genitalia 6. timing-of-puberty effect = people that reach puberty late perform better on some visual/ spatial tasks than those who mature early 7. congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) = genetic anomaly that causes the adrenal glands to produce unusually high levels of androgen from the prenatal period onward; often has masculinizing effects on female fetuses 8. androgenized females = females who develop male-like external genitalia because of exposure to male sex hormones during the prenatal period 9. direct tuition = teaching young children how to behave by reinforcing “appropriate” behaviours and by punishing or otherwise discouraging inappropriate conduct 10. basic gender identity = stage of gender identity in which the child first labels the self as a boy or a girl 11. gender stability = stage of gender identity in which the child recognizes that gender is stable over time 12. gender constancy/consistency = stage of gender identity in which the child recognizes that a person’s gender is invariant despite changes in the person’s activities or appearance (also known as gender constancy). ATTRIBUTIONS common everyday explanations for the causes of behaviour Gender stereotyping of children  we attribute behaviours & personality characteristics on the basis of sex stereotypes first. When we see people, how do we make determinations about their gender? clothing hair mannerisms Determinations about gender often based on external, observable characteristics can be misleading How do ‘our’ expectations & reactions shape children? We model expected behaviours We reinforce desired behaviours repetition of those behaviours Our approval and disapproval is powerful children learn to do things ‘to please’ We actively direct/shape them directed to or steered away from things SEX biological sex genetic composition biological / physical attributes at birth hormonal influences GENDER a person’s individually and socially constructed identification as male or female Gender Typing the process by which a child become aware of their biological sex and the associated gender and acquires the motives, values and behaviours considered appropriate for members of that biological sex. The Development of Gender Typing (sense of gender) Gender typing research: development of Gender Identity (boy or girl?; maleness/femaleness is stable) Gender-role stereotypes (what males/females are supposed to be like) Gender-typed patterns of behaviour (tendency to favour same-sex activities/playmates) Gender Typing has 3 facets: Cognitive Gender Identity (sex-role) gender category stable, unchanged by simple manipulations social Gender role (sex-role concepts/actions) what goes with being a boy/girl gender-role stereotypes gender-typed behaviours biological physical, anatomical, hormonal, biological processes that differ COGNITIVE: Gender Identity understanding of one’s own gender category and that it is ‘permanent’ stable over time constant/consistent across situations “our awareness of our gender & its implications” (Shaffer et al., p.525) proceeds through 3 stages labeling stability constancy/consistency 1. Gender labeling children’s ability to correctly label their own sex and correctly identify others as boys or girls age 2: can pick out same-sex pictures age 2 ½ - 3: most can label own and others’ sex 1. Gender stability the understanding that one’s gender (sex) remains the same throughout life When you were a baby were you a little girl or a little boy? When you grow up will you be a mommy or a daddy? most by age 4 generally by 5-7 1. Gender constancy (consistency) understanding that gender remains unchanged despite changes in appearance (clothing, hair, etc.) learn appearance vs. reality distinction (by 5yrs) boy (who feels ‘boyness’) in floppy sunhat at play centre looks like a girl, but is still a boy Sandra Bem: to reach constancy/consistency: must have some grasp of basic genital differences this is what classifies boy/girl doesn’t change underneath appearances 4yr olds who don’t understand genital differences, don’t show gender constancy/consistency By 2 may know (label) own/others gender but don’t have full grasp of gender identity until 4/5 with concepts of stability & constancy/consistency Children ages 3-5 typically use clothing & hairstyle to distinguish males & females SOCIAL: Developing Gender Roles children’s understanding of what does (or should) go with being a boy or girl set of attitudes and behaviours associated with cultural conventions of being male or female How do girls act; what do girls do? How do boys act; what do boys do? Gender Roles - 2 aspects: 1. gender & gender-role stereotypes social attitudes/beliefs 2. gender-typed behaviours actual behaviours Gender /Gender-role stereotypes the specific characteristics and behaviours/roles that are considered appropriate for boys and girls Across cultures find: clearly stereotyped traits for males and females Men Women Aggression Weakness Strength Gentleness Cruelty Appreciativness Coarseness Soft-heartednes s Stereotyped ideas develop EARLY and even in families that espouse gender equality Age 2 –associate certain objects with sexes vacuum/food = women tools = men Age 3 or 4 – associate occupations, toys, activities to stereotypic gender men= firefighters, doctors women = secretaries, nurses How males and females SHOULD behave William Damon (1977) 4-9 yr olds George little boy who likes to play with dolls. George’s parents tell him only little girls play with dolls; little boys shouldn’t. Why do people tell George that? Is there a rule that boys shouldn’t do that?  4 yr olds: OK for George to play with dolls 6 yr olds: WRONG for George to play with dolls 9 yr olds: Differentiated between what boys/girls USUALLY DO and what is ACTUALLY WRONG George can, isn’t wrong/bad, but boys usually don’t. Toddlers/Preschool (4) gender identity and gender roles still developing stereotypes not yet set time of greatest / most complete acceptance 6 yr olds know gender/sex is permanent/stable search for a rule/pattern about behaviour see rules as absolute stereotypes rigid 9yr olds realize assumptions are social conventions gender roles become more flexible gender & gender-role stereotyping can decrease !!!! Adults & children more tolerant of gender-role deviations by girls than boys boys the most negative towards gender-role deviations by boys! Gender-typed behaviour: how children behave as a function of their sex and accompanying gender stereotypes Children behave in gender stereotyped ways (show gender-typed behaviour) BEFORE they have developed clear ideas about gender differences or gender stereotypes! 18 mo – 2 yrs: start to prefer gender-stereotyped toys 6 months before they can consistently identify/label own gender 18 month old boy will pick a truck over a doll/bear even though he cannot yet identify himself as a boy!! By 3 yrs: begin to prefer same-sex playmates are more sociable with same-sex playmates (‘gender segregation’) before they have a concept of gender stability By grade 1:  begin to pay more attention to behaviour of same-sex adults/playmates when see toys labeled ‘boys’ or ‘girls’ will play more with ones labeled appropriate for own sex use info from others to guide their behaviours Gender-stereotyped behaviour DESPITE gender neutral attempts Social learning (cognitive) theory Children are encouraged/socialized by others to learn gender stereotypes and behaviours BUT Kohlberg suggests Children establish a gender identity and then ACTIVELY SEEK OUT models of that gender not ‘innocent victims’ of socialization, instead they actively socialize themselves Gender diversity Children who assert a different gender identity can develop it as clearly/consistently as their peers Gender expression at any time may be influenced by exposure to stereotypes identification with significant people Internal sense tends to be a stable experience although shifting is acknowledged ALL children benefit from support & acceptance Supporting all gender typing provide wide range of toys/books/activities to choose from create environment that presents males & females in non-stereotypical and diverse gender roles helps ensure a diverse range of models when children ACTIVELY socialize themselves Provide choice in friend groups/sports Supporting all gender typing Children typically express their gender identity in: clothing or hairstyle preferred name or nickname social behavior manner/style of behavior and physical gestures social relationships sex/gender of friends who they imitate Be attentive to these signs connect, observe, learn, include, support SUMMARY Gender typing is the process by which children acquire a gender identity, as well as the motives, values, and behaviours considered appropriate in their society for members of their biological sex. Categorizing Males and Females: Gender-Role Standards A gender-role standard is a motive, value, or behaviour considered more appropriate for members of one sex than the other. Many societies are characterized by a gender-based division of labour in which females are encouraged to adopt an expressive role and males an instrumental role. Some Facts and Fictions about Sex Differences Girls outperform boys in assessments of verbal ability and are more emotionally expressive, compliant, and timid than boys are. Boys are more active and more physically and verbally aggressive than girls and tend to outperform girls on tests of arithmetic reasoning and visual/spatial skills. These sex differences are small and refer only to group norms; overall, males and females are far more psychologically similar than they are different. Myths include ideas that females are more sociable, suggestible, and illogical and less analytical and achievement-oriented than males. The persistence of these “cultural myths” can create self-fulfilling prophecies that promote sex differences in cognitive performance and steer males and females along different career paths. Developmental Trends in Gender Typing By age 2½ to 3, children label themselves as boys or girls, a first step in the development of gender identity. Between ages 5 and 7, they come to realize that gender is an unchanging aspect of self. Children begin to learn gender-role stereotypes at about the same age that they display a basic gender identity. By age 10 to 11, children’s stereotyping of male and female personality traits is strong and these preteens view stereotypes as obligatory prescriptions. Children become more flexible in their thinking about gender during middle childhood. Many toddlers display gender-typed toy and activity preferences, even before reaching basic gender identity. By age 3, children show gender segregation by preferring to spend time with same-sex playmates and developing clear prejudices against members of the other sex. Boys face stronger gender-typing pressures than girls do and are quicker to develop gender-typed toy and activity preferences. Theories of Gender Typing and Gender-Role Development According to evolutionary theory, males and females faced different evolutionary pressures over the course of human history and the natural selection process created fundamental differences between males and females. Money and Ehrhardt’s biosocial theory emphasizes biological developments that occur before birth and influence the way a child is socialized. Prenatal hormone differences may contribute to sex differences in play styles and aggression. Nevertheless, gender-role socialization plays a crucial role in determining one’s gender identity and role preferences.  Consistent with social-learning theory, children acquire gender-typed toy and activity preferences through direct tuition. Observational learning also contributes to gender typing as preschool children attend to models of both sexes and become increasingly aware of gender stereotypes. Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory claims that children are self-socializers and must pass through basic gender identity and gender stability before reaching gender consistency, when they selectively attend to same-sex models and become gender typed. However, research suggests that gender typing begins much earlier than Kohlberg thought, and measures of gender consistency do not predict the strength of gender typing. According to Martin and Halverson’s gender schema theory, children who have established a basic gender identity construct “in-group/out-group” and own-sex gender schemas. These schemas serve as scripts for processing gender-related information and developing gender roles. Schema-consistent information is gathered and retained, whereas schema-inconsistent information is ignored or distorted, thus perpetuating gender stereotypes that may have no basis in fact. The best account of gender typing is an eclectic, integrative theory that recognizes that processes emphasized in biosocial, social-learning, cognitive-developmental, and gender schema theories all contribute to gender-role development. Psychological Androgyny: A Prescription for the 21st Century? The psychological attributes “masculinity” and “femininity” were historically considered to be at opposite ends of a single dimension. However, a newer perspective holds that the androgynous person is someone who possesses a fair number of masculine and feminine characteristics. Research shows that androgynous people do exist, are relatively popular and well adjusted, and may be adaptable to a wider variety of environmental demands than people who are traditionally gender typed. Lesson 10B: Moral Development and Aggression: Terms: 1. care = cherishing and protecting others. 2. fairness = rendering justice according to shared rules. 3. loyalty = standing with your group, family, or nation. 4. authority = submitting to tradition and legitimate authority. 5. sanctity/purity = abhorrence for disgusting things, foods, and actions 6. internalization = the process of adopting the attributes or standards of other people—taking these standards as one’s own 7. mutually responsive relationship = parent–child relationship characterized by mutual responsiveness to each other’s needs and goals and shared positive affect. 8. committed compliance = compliance based on the child’s eagerness to cooperate with a responsive parent who has been willing to cooperate with him or her. 9. situational compliance = compliance based primarily on a parent’s power to control the child’s conduct 10. love withdrawal = a form of discipline in which an adult withholds attention, affection, or approval in order to modify or control a child’s behaviour. 11. power assertion = a form of discipline in which an adult relies on his or her superior power (e.g., by administering corporal punishment or withholding privileges) to modify or control a child’s behaviour  12. induction = a nonpunitive form of discipline in which an adult explains, by emphasizing its effects on others, why a child’s behaviour is wrong and should be changed. 13. immanent justice = the notion that unacceptable conduct will invariably be punished and that justice is ever present in the world 14. inequity aversion = the preference for treating others equally and fairly, and resistance to incidental inequalities 15. transactive interactions = verbal exchanges in which individuals perform mental operations on the reasoning of their discussion partners 16. reactive aggression = aggressive acts for which the perpetrator’s major goal is to harm or injure a victim. 17. proactive aggression = aggressive acts for which the perpetrator’s major goal is to gain access to objects, space, or privileges 18. relational aggression = acts such as snubbing, exclusion, withdrawing acceptance, or spreading rumours that are aimed at damaging a victim’s self-esteem, friendships, or social status. 19. hostile attributional bias = tendency to view harm done under ambiguous circumstances as having stemmed from a hostile intent on the part of the harmdoer 20. coercive home environment = a home in which family members often annoy one another and use aggressive or otherwise antisocial tactics as a method of coping with these aversive experiences. 21. negative reinforcer = any stimulus whose removal or termination as the consequence of an act will increase the probability that the act will recur. Summary: Defining Moral Domain Morality implies a set of internalized principles or ideals that help the individual to distinguish right from wrong and to act on this distinction. There are cultural differences in what is included in the moral domain. Whereas individualistic cultures from the West emphasize fairness and care, collectivistic cultures tend to have a broader conception of morality including loyalty, authority and sanctity/purity. Humans are born to become moral beings. This is evident in their capacity for empathic feelings and compassion, their social preference for helpfulness, and their spontaneous helping behaviour. Evolutionary Roots of Morality in Young Children While there clearly are evolutionary roots for young children’s morality, this does not imply that social factors such as parenting and culture are unimportant for the development of prosocial and moral behaviour. Rule Internalization in the Context of Close Relationships Child-rearing studies consistently imply that use of inductive discipline promotes moral maturity, whereas love withdrawal has little effect and power assertion is associated with moral immaturity. Corporal punishment (e.g., spanking and slapping) leads to immediate compliance but impedes moral rule internalization. The effectiveness of induction may vary depending on the child’s temperament. Other nonpunitive techniques such as moral self-concept training are also effective at promoting moral behaviour. Moral Reasoning Development Piaget’s theory views moral reasoning as progressing through a sequence of three levels: the premoral period, heteronomous morality, and autonomous morality. His research and theory have been a springboard for more recent investigations into children’s understanding of lying and fairness and related behaviours. Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory views moral reasoning as progressing through an invariant sequence of three levels, preconventional, conventional, and postconventional moralities, each composed of two distinct stages. Research supports Kohlberg’s stages and his proposals that cognitive development and social experiences with parents, peers, and other participants in higher education or democratic activities contribute to the growth of moral reasoning. The Development of Aggression Intentional acts of harmdoing, or aggression, are often divided into two categories: reactive aggression and proactive aggression. Aggressive Behaviour in Infancy and Childhood Reactive aggression appears by the end of the first year as infants have conflicts over toys and other possessions. During childhood, aggression becomes less physical and increasingly verbal, and somewhat less proactive and increasingly retaliatory. Boys are more overtly aggressive; girls are more relationally aggressive. Aggressiveness as a Trait: How Stable Is It? Overt aggression declines with age, whereas more covert forms of antisocial conduct increase with age. Aggressiveness is a quite stable attribute for both males and females. Aggression as a Behavioural Problem Highly aggressive individuals display a hostile attributional bias that causes them to overattribute hostile intents to others and to retaliate in a hostile manner. Social and Cultural and Influences on Aggression Aggressive inclinations depend, in part, on the cultural, subcultural, and family settings in which a child is raised. Children from a coercive home environment in which hostile behaviours are negatively reinforced are likely to become aggressive. The incidence of children’s aggression can be reduced by creating “nonaggressive” play environments, relying on control procedures such as time-out and the incompatible-response technique, and by implementing social-cognitive interventions. Lesson 11A Parenting: Terms:  1. socialization = the process by which children acquire the beliefs, values, and behaviours considered desirable or appropriate by their culture or subculture 2. family social system = the complex network of relationships, interactions, and patterns of influence that characterizes a family with three or more members 3. autonomy = capacity to make decisions independently, serve as one’s own source of emotional strength, and otherwise manage life tasks without depending on others for assistance 4. acceptance/responsiveness = a dimension of parenting that describes the amount of responsiveness and affection that a parent displays toward a child. 5. demandingness/control = a dimension of parenting that describes how restrictive and demanding parents are 6. authoritarian parenting = a restrictive pattern of parenting in which adults set many rules for their children, expect strict obedience, and rely on power rather than reason to elicit compliance 7. authoritative parenting = flexible, democratic style of parenting in which warm, accepting parents provide guidance and control while allowing the child some say in deciding how best to meet challenges and obligations. 8. permissive parenting = a pattern of parenting in which otherwise accepting adults make few demands of their children and rarely attempt to control their behaviour 9. uninvolved parenting = a pattern of parenting that is both aloof (or even hostile) and over-permissive, almost as if parents cared about neither their children nor what they might become 10. behavioural control = attempts to regulate a child’s conduct through firm discipline and monitoring of his or her conduct. 11. psychological control = attempts to influence a child’s behaviour by such psychological tactics as withholding affection and/or inducing shame or guilt 12. ownness effect = tendency of parents in complex stepparent homes to favour and be more involved with their own biological children than with their stepchildren 2 broad dimensions of parenting: 1. responsiveness / acceptance 2. demandingness / control Responsiveness (Acceptance) the degree to which parents respond to a child’s needs in an accepting and supportive way the amount of support, warmth and affection shown Responsive parents: smile, praise, encourage, are warm & loving Nonresponsive parents: criticize, belittle, punish, ignore Demandingness (Control) the extent to which parents expect, demand & allow mature, responsible behaviour amount of regulation/supervision parents use Demanding parents: limit child’s freedom, have many expectations, follow closely to ensure rules are followed Undemanding parents: less restrictive, few demands, allow considerable freedom to do and decide demandingness/control is related to (depends on) the degree of responsiveness/acceptance Diana Baumrind 4 parenting styles: Authoritative Authoritarian Permissive Uninvolved Parenting Styles Parenting Styles based on Level of Responsiveness / Demandingness Responsiveness Demandingness (acceptance)