Adolescent Cognitive Development PDF

Psych 357 Study Guide Adolescent Cognitive Development Adolescent Reasoning Piaget Formal operations: Piaget’s 4th stage in his theory of cognitive development Involves the ability to use abstract reasoning, to classify ideas, apply logic, and engage in...

Psych 357 Study Guide Adolescent Cognitive Development Adolescent Reasoning Piaget Formal operations: Piaget’s 4th stage in his theory of cognitive development Involves the ability to use abstract reasoning, to classify ideas, apply logic, and engage in hypothetical thinking Can follow and formulate arguments from their premises to their conclusions and back, even if they do not believe in them Abstract Reasoning Propositional thought: The ability to reason through a series of premises to reach a conclusion using logic. Even when a premise is known to be false If A occurs, then B will result. A occurs. What is the result? Hypothetical Deductive Reasoning A systematic, scientific approach to problem solving in which they test hypotheses about variables that might influence an outcome to arrive at (deduce) a conclusion. Example Piagetian tasks: Combinations of liquids problem Pendulum problem: Using weights of different sizes, and strings of different lengths, your goal is to determine which factors impact the speed of a pendulum swing. Explain the steps you would follow in doing this Information processing Attention Selective attention: The ability to focus on relevant information while inhibiting attention to irrelevant  Attention flexibility: Ability to flexibly shift attention from one task or problem to the other as needed Example Tasks: Flanker task Switching task Working memory & processing speed Working memory: The manipulation and temporary storing of information in active memory Working memory span: How many items or chunks of information an individual can actively hold in mind Processing speed: How quickly and efficiently a person encodes information or solves a problem, as typically measured by reaction time Working memory span increases to mid-adolescence Improved myelination Improved knowledge base Processes become automatic (experience + pruning) Cognitive load decreases for automatic processes Processing speed becomes faster from childhood through adolescence Improved myelination Accounts for age-related changes in cognitive performance Processing speed underlies many other capabilities Metacognition Changes in memory strategies: Strategies improve Better rehearsal Faster chunking Have learned more strategies overall More likely to select effective strategies E.g., Deep (vs. shallow) memory strategy use greater in adolescents than children Changes to metacognition  Greater awareness of the limits of memory and knowledge contribute to the use of strategies Social cognition Social cognition: Perspective taking Better performance on 1st- and 2nd-order TOM Point of View tasks: Illustrate teens’ improved ability to take the perspective of others Compare responses to 1st to 3rd person questions Adolescent difference in reaction time on the two types of questions decreases But, affective TOM more difficult than cognitive The Maxi task Theory of Mind task (Wimmer & Perner, 1983) ‘Unexpected location’ False Belief task Assesses cognition (knowledge/beliefs) Steps: Maxi places chocolate in cupboard & goes outside to play Mother moves chocolate to a different cupboard & leaves Maxi comes inside to have some chocolate. Where will he look for it? Point-of-view tasks Affective theory of mind Adolescents faster than children but slower than adults Adults make 1st- and 3rd –person judgements equally quickly Adolescents are slower to make 3rd –person judgements than they are to make 1st- person judgements  Adolescent Egocentrism Moral development- Kohlberg The Postconventional Level Moral reasoning is based on a person’s own moral standards and is derived from personal values, not conventional standards or authority figures. The So-Moral task Morality: reasoning vs. behaviour There is a positive correlation between level of moral reasoning and behaviour Group discussion of moral dilemmas elevates delinquents’ level of moral reasoning But reasoning ability isn’t the only contributor: Social domain theory: Many factors impact how a person responds E.g.,: Teen may “exclude” some individuals and “include” others due to in-group loyalty Postconventional thought is first found in adolescents; formal operational thinking is a prerequisite for it However, many adolescents and adults do not reason at the highest level Academic skills & motivation Sex differences in cognition No difference in overall IQ, bus some differences in particular domains Males outperform on math (sometimes) & problems involving spatial reasoning Better at advanced/higher levels math visuospatial abilities like mental rotation tasks Females perform better on tests of verbal reasoning & writing skills Females use more reading strategies, notably reflection, making connections Gender differences- Why? Gendered expectations & socialization Cultural messages & stereotypes Academic motivation & performance Academic motivation declines through adolescence Can lead to a snowball effect of declining grades But, teens who maintain high motivation maintain grades Motivation predicts standardized test scores Very high scores: High aptitude & motivation likely Low sores: Lack of aptitude, motivation Factors that explain motivation The role of choice Many adolescents express low interest in school material Choice = higher motivation (more intrinsically motivated) Task Value: Subjective value a person assigns to a task, which depends on: Interest in the material Attainment value of material (how much it’s worth to their identity, etc.) Utility value Cost Goal orientation: Performance vs. mastery orientation Expectations for success Test Anxiety Motivation & types of goals Mastery goals: desire to master tasks, advance skills & gain intrinsic rewards Performance-approach goals: desire to outperform others & gain extrinsic rewards Performance-avoidance goals: desire to avoid failure or appear incompetent Outcomes: Mastery approach = high academic success Performance-approach = high academic success, but only when combined with mastery approach! Contexts of achievement School context Quality of student-teacher relationship typically declines from middle childhood  Perceptions of teacher support relate to high performance but high teacher control can backfire Stereotype threat Occurs when victims of a stereotype fear confirming a negative belief about their social group Experience anxiety and lowered performance Experiments manipulate threat & see changed performance Family & peer context Parenting context: Emotionally supportive parents Instrumental guidance and help (e.g., applications) Peer context: Assist one another on school material Peers tend to be similar to one another This means peers can have positive or negative influences on academics– peer pressure can be positive or negative Impacts of poverty Neighborhood context & achievement Poverty-ridden neighborhoods associated with negative adolescent outcomes Experimental studies that randomized families to neighborhoods through vouchers had positive effects on: taking advanced HS classes graduation rates college attendance reduced single parenthood Neighbourhood factors: Schools with lower teacher qualifications, teacher turnover, etc. Adolescents model behaviors of others (substance use, violence, etc.) Lack of institutional resources (e.g., community activities, work/volunteer opportunities) Dropping out risk factors: reading below grade level excessive absence low grades low self-esteem problems with teachers substance abuse being old for one’s grade level being male marrying or having children early being from a low-income household or from large urban area Dropouts are more likely to be unemployed & have low incomes they are more likely to develop delinquency, criminal behaviour, & substance abuse Cascades Volunteerism Improvements to: Overall cognition Ability to entertain multiple possibilities (hypothetical thinking) Future-oriented planning Identity formation and how one is perceived by others May spur adolescents to volunteer to help others in need Civic-minded activities in adolescence predict adult involvement Academic motivation Failing to invest in school = falling behind in grades In turn, poor school performance places adolescents at risk for problem behaviors such as delinquency, substance use, and dropping out of school Study of 1,000 ethnically- & racially-diverse 7-11 graders revealed: Disengagement from school led to problem behaviours Problem behaviours led to more school disengagement Disengagement Led to higher risk of dropout School dropout Downstream consequences: Poverty, unemployment, & incarceration Substance use Teenage pregnancy Inadequate physical activity, high stress, & poor health Can disrupt negative cascades through intervention  Preventing school dropout Adolescent Socio-Emotional Development Emotional Development High intensity of emotions during adolescence Methods of study: Experience sampling & daily diaries Reveal frequent fluctuations in emotions in a day Choice is key: Adolescents happy when doing things they choose Longitudinal studies show changes over time: Typically, teens experience happiness most However, happiness declines, while anger, sadness, and anxiety show increases Self-Regulation Developments in adolescents Impulsiveness high as assessed in delay-of-discounting tasks Risk-taking relatively high Sensation-seeking high Approaches to the study of self-regulation Delay discounting tasks  Simulated driving (Steinberg) Delay discounting tasks Sensation seeking & peers Steinberg: driving simulator Reward for finishing course quickly No reward if they have an accident Outcomes: Adolescents more likely to run the light Risk-taking increased when told peers watching from waiting room Males more likely to do this, especially when in a good mood and with a peer Contexts of emotional development Family context: Low supportiveness, harsh punishment, toxic interactions increase risk of emotion problems Family poverty likewise a risk factor Peer context: Supportive peers help teens in their emotional well being However, peers are also a source of influence in risk-taking Neighborhood context: Opportunities to engage in extracurricular activities benefit teens However, there is also a “cost of privilege” (see Luthar & colleagues) Identity development Development of self: Identity Identity: An organized sense of self, which includes personal beliefs, goals, values, and commitments. Erikson’s Theory: Identity versus identity confusion Adolescents seek to develop a satisfying identity and a sense of their role in society. Failure may lead to a lack of stable identity and confusion about their adult roles. Identity crisis: Erikson’s term for the intense exploration of potential identities that characterizes adolescence Marcia’s identity statuses Identity diffusion: Least advanced status; adolescents have no commitments, nor trying to form them; young adolescents are usually in this phase, but older adolescents in this phase drift through life or become alienated and rebellious  Foreclosure: Commitments are made without considering alternatives; made early in life; based on identification with parents, teachers, or religious leaders Moratorium: Actively exploring alternatives in an attempt to make a choice; individuals are often anxious and intense Identity achievement: Alternatives are explored and firm commitments developed; have high self-esteem and self-acceptance Not required to pass through categories like stages Some more well-developed than others though Childhood: likely in identity diffusion or foreclosure High school & college: move from diffusion & foreclosure to moratorium & achievement College: greatest gains in identity formation occur in college and university more exposure to a variety of lifestyles, beliefs, & career options stronger sense of identity in final year than in first year, due to resolution of identity crises Ethnic identity Self-identity is more complex for minority groups Adolescents within a dominant culture assimilate only one set of cultural values Adolescents from ethnic minority groups confront two sets of cultural values Overidentification with dominant culture may lead to rejection from the minority group Rejecting the dominant culture’s values may limit opportunities within the larger society The facets of ethnic and racial identity (Phinney): Ethnic/racial identity exploration Ethnic/racial identity resolution Affirmation Gender identity The self-perceptions about being girl/woman, boy/man, or nonbinary Cisgender Transgender Nonbinary Not the same as Sexual orientation Gender expression Parents & peers Parenting styles Baumrind: Styles vary on 2 dimensions Authoritative: high warmth + high expectations Authoritarian: low warmth + high expectations Permissive: high warmth + low expectations Uninvolved: low warmth + low expectations Parental conflict Adolescents close to their parents show: more self-reliance higher self-esteem better school performance fewer adjustment problems Adolescence brings increased bickering & fewer shared activities Parents’ attempts to exert control & adolescents’ drive for autonomy causes conflict As adolescents get older, there is more compromise Across adolescence, # of conflicts decreases but intensity increases The way conflict is resolved matters more than conflict itself Parental monitoring & disclosure Monitoring: Parents’ attempts to gather information about their children’s everyday activities Solicitation is a form of monitoring Monitoring associated with positive adolescent outcomes (e.g., low substance use; regulated internet use) Disclosure: The teen’s willingness to divulge information to parents  Thus, monitoring and knowing what a teen does is a two-way street Adolescents display selective disclosure Mothers vs. fathers Adolescents spend more time with their mothers have more conflicts with them, but feel mothers support them more & know them better Good relations with fathers contribute to adolescents’ psychological well-being Adverse relationships with fathers associated with depression in adolescents Siblings Unique relationship Shared history Often longest lifetime relationships Obligatory not optional Quality of sibling relationships relates to that of romantic and other relationships Power differential b/w older & younger reduce Differential treatment becomes better understood, but excessive differential treatment can have lasting consequences Peer Groups- Cliques Small groups: 5–7 Good friends Similar in family background, attitudes, and values Up to age 11: much of children's social interactions occur within the clique Age 11-18: many adolescents have ties to many cliques; also an increase in the stability of cliques Clique: A friendship group that children voluntarily form or join themselves A key feature that underlies cliques and binds their members together is the similarities the members share. Membership of cliques tends to be stable, however, for only a few weeks. Peer Groups- Crowds  Membership based on reputation, stereotype Nerds, jocks, stoners, etc. Older adolescents seem to be less tied to cliques, but often belong to crowds Being associated with a crowd may enhance or hurt adolescents' reputations and influence how peers treat them High value placed on popularity within a larger group & value upholding the group’s norms Crowd: A wide group who share general interests; may include several cliques Peer relationships Changes to the nature of friendships from childhood to adolescence Compatibility: Growing similarities between friends Stability: Enduring over time Reciprocity: Two-way street Respect for individuality: Ability to appreciate those different from you Friends tend to be similar, and become more so: identity status educational aspirations political beliefs deviant behavior Benefits of friendship: Opportunities to explore self Opportunities to deeply understand another Foundation for future intimate relationships Help in managing stress Improved school attitudes and involvement Gender differences in adolescent friendships Girls: Emotional closeness Communal concerns Get together to “just talk” Self-disclosure, support Relational aggression higher Boys: Shared activities Achievement, status Competition, conflict Autonomy-driven Physical aggression higher Bullying changes Decreases in: Physical aggression Verbal aggression Increases in: Relational aggression Cyberbullying Effective Anti-bullying programs emphasize change & malleability of personality Social media Benefits: Emotional connection Prosocial interactions Protective for adolescents who experience geographic or social isolation Risks: Overuse Misuse & disclosing too much information Online harassment and unwanted exposure to sexually explicit material Cascades Cascades: Depression & self-esteem Cascading risks of depression Adolescents w/ depression at risk for poor social relationships & and behavioral problems Risks extend to mental disorders, education & economic circumstances, & work impairment due to physical health Cascading risks of low self-esteem May cascade to later aggression, social withdrawal, poor relationships with friends & romantic partners Low self-esteem is associated with substance use, weak employment prospects, somatic complaints & insomnia Reciprocal cascading pathways between depression & self-esteem: Longitudinal research on 1,500 people Followed from age 12-35 years Low self-esteem in adolescence predicted depression in young adulthood Low self-esteem and declining self-esteem in and across adolescence predicted depression 2 decades later Cascades: Relationships with parents Secure attachment High prosocial behaviors toward peers Low aggression Security around romantic relationships Come to view others as trustworthy and the self as loved Insecure attachments Reverse patterns from above Cascades: Relationships with peers Social isolation  Potential for cascades to substance use Rat Park studies Victimization & bullying Psychological cascades: low self-esteem, feelings of powerlessness, social anxiety, depression, suicidal attempts Health cascades: sleep problems, somatic symptoms, substance use Academic cascades: disengagement from school Positive cascades Any negative cascade involves a reciprocal positive cascade Continued contextual influences and experiences will buffer or amplify cascades And so, a rule of thumb: Developmental trajectories are multi-determined, rather than deterministically influenced by a single factor Adolescent Physical Development Brain Changes Developmental Brain Changes Gray matter = cell bodies & unmyelinated dendrites/axons Increases across childhood Peaks at ages 12-14 then declines Peaks 1-2 years earlier for girls White matter = myelinated axons Increases steadily across childhood & adolescence Levels off in late 20’s Brain asymmetry = risk taking In gambling tasks, teen brains show more limbic system activation than adult brains Adolescent brains highly reactive to large rewards Subdued activation to smaller rewards Adolescent brains less responsive to negative consequences  Brain Asymmetry Dyssynchrony: the irregular, uneven pattern of development of the brain Age 11: parietal lobe (sensory information) Age 16-17: temporal lobes & cerebellum (memory, vision & auditory processing) Age 25ish: prefrontal cortex (planning & ‘higher order’ function) Development happens through: Reorganization: gray matter peaks, then declines due to pruning of extra or weak synapses Efficiency: myelination increases Experience: supports cognition and abstract thinking Brain asymmetry = risk-taking In gambling tasks, teen brains show more limbic system activation than adult brains Adolescent brains highly reactive to large rewards Subdued activation to smaller rewards Adolescent brains less responsive to negative consequences Puberty The timing of puberty Average age of first menstruation is 12-12.5 years Individual differences in timing based on: Nutrition Body size Genetics Race Family environment Socioeconomic status Historical timing Timing varies with: Nutrition: Poor nutrition (i.e. malnutrition) associated with later onset of periods Body size: Overweight/larger girls reach puberty earlier (not true of boys) Genetics: Girls reach menarche at about the same time as their biological mothers & identical twins have more similar timing than fraternal twins Race: Caucasian girls tend to reach menarche later than African American and Hispanic girls (for US population) Family Environment: Adverse family environment is linked with earlier menarche (early stressors count here too) SES: Girls from financially-disadvantaged homes start 6-12 months earlier than girls from financially well-off homes Historical timing: secular trends indicate earlier onset in more recent generations Consequences of Pubertal Timing  Early Pubertal Timing: Mechanisms of Influence Cultural context of puberty Cultures differ in their: Reactions to puberty Traditions around puberty (puberty rites) Cultural similarities in: Characterizations of adolescents Worries about pregnancy Institutions and practices around delaying entry to adulthood Sex & sex education Sexual behaviour Increase in sex drive due to hormone shifts Developmentally-appropriate Teens who date earlier are more likely to have sex in high school The younger the onset of sexual activity, the lower the likelihood of using contraceptives, the more likely they are to become pregnant Not all relationships lead to sex  Rates of sexual activity Increase % of teens report engaging intercourse Majority by graduation from HS High % of teens do not use condom Risks for STIs & pregnancy More programs focusing on sexual health in schools now Still, substantial percentage of teens practice abstinence Adolescent sexual health Teen Pregnancy and Birth Rates: ~727,000 teen pregnancies per year ~12,000 in girls below 15 years 25% end in abortion 87% of births to young mothers who have no stable/supportive partner Rates of both live births & abortions have declined in American teenagers aged 15 to 19 Sexually-active adolescents Personal Early pubertal timing Childhood impulsivity Weak sense of personal control Family Step-, single-parent, large family Little/no religious involvement Weak parental monitoring Disrupted parent–child communication Peer Sexually active friends & older siblings Alcohol and/or drug use Educational  Poor school performance Low educational goals Contraceptive use & STI’s Self-reported contraceptive use (consistent): ~80% STI rates highest in adolescence Especially high in United States 1 out of 5-6 sexually active teens affected Females more easily infected Parents play a protective role: Adolescents whose parents talked to them re: sex had first sexual encounter 1 yr later than others Mothers are more likely than fathers to talk with their adolescents Health behaviours Health promotion: Nutrition Calorie needs increase 3000-4000 calories per day Males have higher calorie need than females Independence of choice increases-- fast food, skipped breakfast Portion distortion: belief you are eating a single portion when you are really eating 2+ Can quickly exceed recommended daily allowances of fat, sugar, sodium, caffeine Nutritional deficits and/or exceeding daily allowances has physical & cognitive consequences Rapidly changing nutritional needs and body image concerns brought on by puberty & societal pressures may increase risk for eating disorders Physical activity Only 49.5% of high school students meet the recommended levels of physical activity  60 mins/day, 5+ days/week of activity that increases the heart rate and breathing Group differences (in US): Girls are less active than boys White males are most active Black females are least active Changes in sleep patterns Adolescents need 8½ to 9½ hours of sleep per night Still require a lot of sleep, but go to bed much later Sleep phase (circadian) delay Timing of required activities- school Social habit change Lack of sleep impairs Executive Functions Impacts achievement Increases anxiety and depressed mood Leads to decision making and high-risk choices Greater alcohol and drug use Problems of sleep: Too little Teens need a lot of sleep! (But don’t get it) Worsening over past decades (survey research) Impacts of artificial light/technology access Sleep debt: Can’t make it up Poor quality Problems falling asleep Insomnia Bruxism Contexts of sleep Technology context  Access to more Introduction of artificial light School context Start times & mismatch to teen circadian rhythm Should schools change their starts? (helps) Cultural context Sleep deprivation in teens (universal problem) But, sleep times vary across countries Sleep deprivation greater in certain cultures (e.g., Asia) Sleep & academics For every hour of increased sleep, scores improved This change was most notable for students who had weaker academic abilities to begin with Alcohol & drug use In Canada…. 2/3 of teens use alcohol Average age of first drink is 13 Average age of intoxication is 14 More than 80% of teens in grade 12 drink 1/3 of teens use marijuana average age of drug use is 15.7 1 in 20 try LSD, ecstasy, or cocaine Substance use in adolescence Experimenters Psychologically-healthy Sociable Sensation-seeking Abusers  Low SES Mental health problems within the home Substance abuse within the home Child abuse Impulsivity, poor self-regulation Hostility Earlier onset of drug use Alcohol & drug prevention Programs that target large groups of teens are less effective at changing behavior than school and community-based programs featuring smaller, interactive sessions Family-focused interventions work well Raising the legal age and restrictions on availability can help lower adolescent alcohol use Developmental cascades Cascades from brain development Brain changes & cognitive growth Structural & functional changes may support memory, planning, perspective taking, reasoning, and so on But, the brain works together with growing experience Brain changes & risk taking Asymmetry of the brain Limbic system “emotional core” that may be responsible for teen’s pursuit of novel, exciting, sometimes dangerous activities Cascades from pubertal timing Increased risk for sexual activity at young ages Increased risk for drinking, smoking, etc. Stress can cascade to health risks later in development Cascades from overweight & obesity  Health problems (e.g., diabetes) Downstream effects for mental health & economic well being But, perceptions are what matter most Being overweight OR underweight does not matter as much for mental health and well being as how one views one’s bodies and feeling good about the self Emergent adulthood Emergent vs. Early adulthood Early adulthood thought to be from 18 (the end of adolescence) until 40 to 45 (beginning of middle adulthood) In recent decades, some developmentalists divide this age period into two separate stages: Emerging adulthood Early adulthood Emergent adulthood Typically thought to be ages 18-25 Some researchers extend this up to age 29 Jeffrey Arnett (2000) the driving force behind emerging adulthood being carved out as a phase Emerging adulthood is neither adolescence nor young adulthood No longer dependent on others like in adolescence Not yet established with the markers of adulthood (financial independence, etc.) Characteristics According to Arnett there are 5 markers of emergent adulthood: Age of identity exploration Age of instability Age of self-focus Age of feeling in-between Age of possibilities Socioeconomic variation Some believe emergent adulthood is an upper middle-class experience Polls of university students that reflect diverse SES representations reveal similar experiences among low- and high-SES students’ experiences Except that low-SES students express: Lower emotional health ratings Lower financial support for necessary education Cultural variation- similarities Arnett is American, and based work upon US teens/adults Little research on youth from non-industrialized/lower-income countries In other industrialized countries, youth are similar to those in US on: Post-secondary rates Age of marriage Age of parenthood Cultural variation- differences Europe: Emergent adulthood leisurely/protracted Affluent & egalitarian Government support for education Good social supports (housing, etc.) Asia: Countries like Japan & South Korea share similar features to Europe Collectivist norms & obligations to family may truncate emergent adulthood Need to establish financial capability to support parents May limit identity exploration When does adulthood begin? Activities: marriage & parenthood Mark early adulthood now and not emergent adulthood Less essential than previously Valued more strongly by college students who are: In fraternity/sorority Younger college students (18-25) An ethnic minority In traditional marital status (i.e., not cohabitating) Part of a religion Independence: financial & overall responsibility Regardless of age and culture, thought to be the true indicator of adulthood Not fleeing the nest 2014– first time in 130 years that 18- to 34-year-olds more likely to be living at home than with partner: Parents: 32.1% Spouse/partner: 31.6% Alone, w/kids (single parent), roommates: 14% Other family member: 22% Black & Hispanic young adults more likely to live w/parents than White young adults Reasons? Postponing cohabitation/marriage Falling wages (men, in particular) Increased post-secondary participation Education & work Changes in thinking Adolescents capable of hypothetical thought, but adults have experience that allows for more nuanced application of thinking Postformal thought: a kind of thinking characterized by:  Decisions rooted in reality and practicality rather than ideals The ability to make adaptative choices Less concern about others judging your decisions Dialectical thought: thinking that is characterized by the ability to balance opposing positions or contradictory views without obscuring the important aspects of either Education influences the ability to reach postformal and dialectical thinking Educational access Though educational expectations are growing, involvement is growing slower in US than other places Cost of educational access prohibitive 65% of graduating students have student load debt Cost (and associated debt) varies greatly by institution type and state Debt is higher for graduate degrees Highest is for professional degrees– Medicine in particular Career development Extrinsic Money Health & other benefits Retirement income Security Intrinsic Identity Self esteem/worth Work ethic (moral identity) Socialization Personal growth  Super’s Theory Millennials & NEETs Millennials want purpose in their work Employers won’t give as much stability as they did generations ago so workers need more than a paycheck Only 55% report feeling engaged though Less than Gen X’ers and Boomers NEET = neither employed nor in education/training In US in 2017: 13% of 15- to 29-year-olds Females more likely Higher rates in countries where there have been economic recessions Early Career Challenges Learning how to carry out the job tasks Accepting your subordinate status within the organization or profession Learning how to get along with co-workers and supervisor Showing that you can maintain the job, make improvements, & show progress Finding a sponsor or mentor  Defining the boundaries between the job and other areas of life Evaluating your choice in light of supervisor appraisal & measurable outcomes Learning to cope with daily stressors, such as failures Sexism at work Different sex/gender representation by field Women in helping fields Men in sciences/STEM Jobs held by women have lower status, pay, benefits, stability When women enter fields led by men, status of those fields drops Sexism less obvious in some fields now, but still embedded in workplace culture in many fields/workplaces Wage inequality Women make 89 cents for every dollar a man makes 59 cents if you’re a woman of colour, compared to a white man Only 16% of women & gender-diverse people with disabilities are paid fairly compared to their peers At present rate of progress, will take 268 years to close gender wage gap worldwide Other sources report ~ 100 years Barriers to wage equality Glass ceiling: invisible barrier preventing women and minorities from advancing at work Glass cliff: placing women and minorities in leadership roles when there is a high risk of failure