Models Of Linguistic Processing PDF

Models of Linguistic Processing Dr. Mohd Azmarul A Aziz Lecturer & Speech-Language Therapist Universiti Sains Malaysia Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 1  Objectives 1. Understand the linguistic proc...

Models of Linguistic Processing Dr. Mohd Azmarul A Aziz Lecturer & Speech-Language Therapist Universiti Sains Malaysia Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 1  Objectives 1. Understand the linguistic processing model The working memory model Top down/bottom-up processing model Passive/active processing model Serial/parallel processing model Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 2  Introduction There are several models help in explaining how: i. Cognitive processing in general ii. Specific language processing occurs The application of the model varies depending on i. The task ii. The individual language user Able to distinguish between structures  fixed anatomical and physiological features of our CNS. control processes  organize, analyze, and synthesize incoming linguistic information varies by individual and the task involved. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 3  Information Processing The Information Processing Model  a framework used by cognitive psychologists to explain and describe mental processes. The model likens the thinking process to how a computer works  just like our brain (dealing with incoming stimuli and formulating outgoing responses). Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 4  Information Processing Computer & human mind  takes in information, organizes and stores it to be retrieved at a later time. Automatic processes  unintentional or routinized, require very little of the available cognitive capacity. Effortful processing  requires concentration and attention by our brain and, is slower to develop and requires greater effort. Thought and language  includes cognitive processes involved in attention, perception, organization, memory, concept formation, problem solving and transfer, and management or executive function (Groome, 1999). Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 5 Information Processing Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 6  Information Processing: Attention Involves awareness of a learning situation and active cognitive processing. Selective Attention Illustrated in Figure 3.7 where not all stimuli are attended to, preventing stimulus D from proceeding. Components of Attending Divided into orientation and reaction. Orientation Ability to sustain attention over time. Humans attend best when motivated, attracted by high-intensity stimuli, especially if moving or undergoing change. Related to the individual's ability to determine the uniqueness of the stimulus. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 7  Information Processing: Attention Reaction Amount of time required for an individual to respond to a stimulus. Reaction time influenced by the ability to select the relevant dimensions of a task. Developmental Aspect Less mature individuals less efficient at attention allocation and have a more limited attentional capacity. Automaticity in Attention Processes become relatively automatic for more mature individuals. Requires only minimal allocation of available brain resources. Resource Allocation in Children Children must allocate more limited resources of the brain at this level. Fewer resources available for higher-level processes. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 8  Information Processing: Discrimination Ability to identify stimuli differing along some dimension. Identification of Relevant Characteristics Essential for comparing new input with stored information. Schematic Illustration (Figure 3.7) Brain decides stimuli A and F are new problems. Stimuli B and C deemed similar and stored in bin 2. Stimulus E requires an immediate response. Immediate Response: Brain responds accordingly to stimulus E. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 9  Information Processing: Discrimination Working Memory (WM) for Language Decoding Special memory type holding messages during processing. Located in Broca's and associated areas. Crucial for higher language and cognitive tasks. Controls attention, allowing information to be held temporarily during processing. Essential Role of WM Supports acquisition of complex academic skills and knowledge. Influences various language and literacy areas. Linked to the rate of learning new vocabulary, comprehension, literacy acquisition, math, reasoning, and problem-solving. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 10  Information Processing: Discrimination WM Capacity and Comprehension Children with greater WM capacity demonstrate more accurate comprehension. Importance in Spoken Language Decoding Vital for holding and processing information after it's spoken. Enables scanning for words, syntactic structure, and overall meaning. Integration of older information into the developing concept as speech continues. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 11  Information Processing: Discrimination Multidimensional Structure of Working Memory Three separable interactive mechanisms (Bayliss et al., 2005; Gavens & Barrouillet, 2004). 1. Central Executive (CE) Coordinates and controls information flow (Lehto et al., 2003). 2. Verbal Material Storage Two components: Articulatory rehearsal process for maintaining phonological information through silent rehearsal. Phonological Short-Term Memory (PSTM) responsible for temporary storage and processing of phonological representations (Baddeley et al., 1998; Gathercole & Baddeley, 1993). 3. Visuospatial Storage Device for temporary retention of visuospatial information. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 12  Information Processing: Discrimination Phonological Short-Term Memory (PSTM) Phonological information in PSTM decays quickly without effort to maintain it. Episodic Buffer Possible fourth mechanism integrating PSTM and visuospatial sketchpad for coherent representation in processing and retaining connected speech (Baddeley, 2000, 2003). Working Memory (WM) Diagram Figure 3.8 presents a visual representation of WM. Central Executive Functions Controls attention, resource allocation, and processes like task analysis, strategy selection, and strategy revision (Parente et al., 1999). Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 13  Information Processing: Discrimination Resource Allocation Challenges Demanding tasks result in fewer resources available for other aspects of the task. Word Learning and Comprehension PSTM crucial for word learning and comprehension, involving matching sound to meaning (Gathercole, 2006). Ability to hold novel speech material in PSTM allows the establishment of a stable, long-term phonological representation of a new word in long-term memory. Developmental Aspect Relation of PSTM and word learning weakens after age 8 but remains significant through adolescence and into adulthood (Gathercole et al., 2005; Gupta, 2003). Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 14 Information Processing: Discrimination Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 15  Information Processing: Organization Importance of Organization in Memory Vital for later retrieval of sensory information. "Chunking" by category is a key organizational principle. Poor organization can overload brain storage and impede memory. Memory Capacity and Organization Memory capacity is considered fixed. Better organization leads to better memory. Challenges of Lack of Organization Lack of organization makes it difficult to recall unrelated information bits. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 16  Information Processing: Organization Organizational Strategies: Two predominant organizational strategies: Mediational Strategies: Symbol forms a link to information. Example: An image facilitating the recall of an event. Associative Strategies: One symbol linked to another. Examples: Categories like animals or food, or common linkages like "men and women" or "pins and needles." Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 17  Information Processing: Memory Memory Definition Ability to recall previously learned and stored information. Information Processing Steps Linguistic analysis precedes elaboration and association with other information. Storage and Retrieval Process Organized information moved to more permanent storage via short-term memory (Groome, 1999). Coding of Linguistic Information Linguistic information coded for both storage and retrieval. Uncertainty in Language Components Unclear if each language component (syntax, morphology, phonology, semantics, and pragmatics) has its own separate memory system. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 18  Information Processing: Memory Importance of Memory in Language Learning and Use All memory aspects play a crucial role (Hood & Rankin, 2005). 1. Working Memory (WM) Discussed earlier, involves active cognitive processing. 2. Short-Term Memory (STM) Temporarily stores information. Examples: Recalling items on a shopping list, numbers in a recently heard telephone number, or steps in following directions (Alloway et al., 2009; Minear & Shah, 2006). 3. Long-Term Memory (LTM) Potentially limitless long-term storage of information. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 19  Information Processing: Memory Short-Term Memory (STM) Limitations Very limited capacity; most adults can hold fewer than 10 items simultaneously. Incoming information either discarded or rehearsed for placement into Long- Term Memory (LTM). Retention in Long-Term Memory Achieved through rehearsal, repetition, and organization. Deep Processing for Best Memory Best when linguistic information is deep processed. Includes semantic interpretation, elaboration, and relating information to prior experience and existing knowledge. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 20  Information Processing: Memory Word Storage in LTM Words stored in various locations based on meaning, word class, sound pattern, and associational categories. Unconscious Storage in LTM Information in LTM stored at an unconscious level. Must be brought to a conscious level for use. Crucial Role of LTM Crucial for learning and retaining new information. Aids in determining previously learned information (Jones et al., 2007). Sensory Impression and Abstract Representation Every stimulus event has a sensory impression and an abstract representation. Sensory impression is nonlinguistic (e.g., the sound of an engine signaling an automobile). Abstract representation or word is linguistic in nature. Word Retrieval from Memory Retrieval from memory proceeds from semantic to phonological. Concept of the word retrieved before the sound structure (Cutting & Ferriera, Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 21  Other Processing Models Top-Down/Bottom-Up Processing Passive/Active Processing Serial/Parallel Processing Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 22  Top-Down/Bottom-Up Processing Levels of Cognitive Processing Basic distinction between "top" and "bottom" levels. Bottom Level Shallow analysis of perceptual data. Makes few demands on the brain. Top Levels Include extraction and synthesis. Higher demands on cognitive resources (Groome, 1999). Top-Down Processing Conceptually driven, influenced by expectations. Linguistic and nonlinguistic contexts enable prediction of incoming information. Knowledge cues lower functions to search for specific information. Example: Predicting the next word based on context (e.g., "The cat caught a..."). Confirmation or reanalysis occurs based on incoming information. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 23  Top-Down/Bottom-Up Processing Bottom-Up Processing Data-driven processing. Analysis starts at sound and syllable discrimination, proceeding to recognition and comprehension. Example: Analysis of the word "mouse" starting at the phoneme level (/m aυ s/). Partially analyzed data integrated with predictions from higher levels. Example: Adjusting predictions based on incoming information. Simultaneous Use of Strategies Context-dependent use of both strategies. Overreliance on memory may lead to misinterpretation of incoming speech. Example of Misinterpretation Illustrative example of a child on Halloween misinterpreting "Trick or treat" as "Chicken feet" (Snyder et al., 2002, p. 4). Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 24  Top-Down/Bottom-Up Processing Top-Down Processing Bottom-Up Processing Use background information to predict Tries to understand language by looking the meaning of language they are going at individual meanings or grammatical to listen to or read. characteristics of the most basic units of the text The linguistic and nonlinguistic contexts Analysis occurs at the levels of sound enable to predict the form and content and syllable discrimination and proceeds of incoming linguistic information. upward to recognition and comprehension. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 25  Passive/Active Processing Passive and Active Processing Based on recognizing patterns of incoming information. Passive Processing Analyzes incoming data in fragments. Similar to bottom-up processing. Active Processing Involves a comparator strategy. Matches input with a previously stored or generated pattern or mental model. Relies on world knowledge as a basis. Example: Predicting "mouse" based on the /m/ sound due to the association of cats catching mice. Model forms gradually from active engagement with the environment. Aids in making sense of the world, anticipation, prediction, and planning. Simultaneous Occurrence Both passive and active processes likely occur simultaneously in actual practice. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 26  Serial/Parallel Processing Information Processing System and Task Handling Can handle more than one task at a time. Levels of Processing May proceed simultaneously and in parallel or sequentially in separate, autonomous processes. Speed and Volume of Information Flow Serial (successive) processes one task at a time. Located in left frontal and temporal lobes. Analyzes information at one level and passes it on to the next. Example: Analyzing signal characteristics, synthesizing phonemic features, bundling into characteristics, syllables, words, and so on. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 27  Serial/Parallel Processing Parallel (simultaneous) Processing Accesses multiple levels of analysis simultaneously. Located in occipital and parietal association areas, possibly in the right hemisphere. Deals with underlying meaning and relationships all at once. Simultaneous and Successive Processing in Practice Both processes occur together. Overall comprehension depends on the most efficient processor. Characteristics of Successive Processing More precise but slower. Located in left frontal and temporal lobes. Overwhelmed quickly, so simultaneous processing often dominates. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 28  Serial/Parallel Processing Adaptation to Information Flow Successive processing takes over when the incoming rate slows. Analogy of Note-Taking Brain writing out each message, akin to taking notes. Successive processing when the professor speaks slowly, summarizing in real- time when speech is faster. Comparison with Sign Language Signing allows greater capacity for expressing information simultaneously. Signs take longer to produce than words but provide more initial information visually. Few signs have similar initial shapes, leading to rapid confirmation compared to words. Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 29 Language Development USM 2024: Mohd Azmarul A Aziz 30