UNIT 7 Learning and Memory PDF

UNIT 7: LEARNING AND MEMORY LEARNING OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Learn the meaning of learning and memory. 2. Understand the different theories of learning. 3. Understand the different types of learning....

UNIT 7: LEARNING AND MEMORY LEARNING OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES At the end of this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Learn the meaning of learning and memory. 2. Understand the different theories of learning. 3. Understand the different types of learning. 4. Understand the phenomenon of memory, encoding, storage, retrieval, and forgetting. INTRODUCTION Learning may be defined as a process that brings about a change in an individual’s way of responding as a result of practice or other experiences. Learning may also be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior. Behavior changes with experience. New patterns of behavior take place when the organism senses its world, interprets it, responds to it, and then responds to the consequences of its own responses. Once the organism has passed through this cycle, it is never the same again. Memory is a term used to label the way facts and past experiences are impressed, retained and later recalled. It is the power of remembering past objects and stages of consciousness. As a by-product of learning, it is that which is left over or retained after an interval of time. To have a good memory means that the individual has learned the appropriate responses. He has retained these effects of impression. LESSON PROPER Theories of Learning Pavlov and Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning involves the learning of associations between stimuli, in situations where responses are reflexive or habitual. Ivan Pavlov, around the beginning of the 20th century, was a Russian physiologist interested mainly in animal digestive processes. In one aspect of his research, dogs had special tubes surgically inserted into their throats to allow measurement of their salivation in response to being fed. And, as the story goes, Pavlov became puzzled by the observation that the dogs often salivated before the food was actually placed in their mouths, and even when lab assistants simply approached the dogs with or without food. Pavlov dubbed this phenomenon “psychic secretions,” an illusion to some kind of covert process. And from there, he and his colleagues set about discovering how and why they occurred, thereby launching a major line of research in psychology that is still active today. In classical conditioning, the organism learns an association between two (or more) stimuli. In essence, the organism learns that one stimulus is often followed by a second one, based on temporal contiguity and whatever response is appropriate to the second stimulus become appropriate to the first as well. The first stimulus, in other words, becomes a “cue” for the second. For example: In Pavlov’s lab, it appears that the stimulus features of the lab assistants such as their white lab coats had become associated with food stimuli. The lab coats cued the dogs that food might be on the way, thus eliciting salivation. Classical conditioning experiments nowadays tend to be quite complex, but the basic procedures and terms can be illustrated by Pavlov’s early experiments: Ring a bell, then immediately give the dog a bit of food; the dog salivates. Ring the bell again, feed the dog again, and so on. Eventually, the dog salivates in response to the bell alone. In technical terms, food is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that produces an unconditioned response (UCR) of salivation. The bell is a conditioned stimulus (CS), which eventually produces a conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated trials in which the bell and food are paired. The components of classical conditioning. We can divide classical conditioning into four main components. These components are the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli and the unconditioned and conditioned response. If we understand the relationships between these components, we’ll be able to understand classical conditioning better. We’re now going to briefly explain each of these components and the relationship between them: Unconditioned stimulus: This is the stimulus that is already significant and meaningful enough for the subject. By this, we mean that it’s a stimulus that’s capable of provoking a response on its own. In Pavlov’s experiment, the unconditioned stimulus was the food. Unconditioned response: This is the subject’s response in the presence of the unconditioned stimulus. In the case of the aforementioned experiment, the unconditioned response was the salivation when the dogs saw the food. Conditioned stimulus: This is the initially neutral stimulus which doesn’t generate any significant response in the subject on its own. However, through association with the unconditioned stimulus, it’s capable of provoking a new response. In the case of Pavlov’s experiment, this stimulus was the sound of the bell. Conditioned response: This is the response after introducing the conditioned stimulus. In the case of this experiment, it was the dogs salivating when they heard the sound of the bell. Skinner and Operant Conditioning. Operant conditioning involves the learning of association between responses and consequences, in situation where behavior is voluntary. Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect. According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e., weakened). Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box. Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior. Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior. We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been affected by reinforcers and punishers. As a child you probably tried out a number of behaviors and learned from their consequences. For example, if when you were younger you tried smoking at school, and the chief consequence was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out with, you would have been positively reinforced (i.e., rewarded) and would be likely to repeat the behavior. If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned, suspended from school and your parents became involved you would most certainly have been punished, and you would consequently be much less likely to smoke now. Positive Reinforcement. Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box. The box contained a lever on the side, and as the rat moved about the box, it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat the action again and again. Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you £5 each time you complete your homework (i.e., a reward) you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework. Negative Reinforcement. The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behavior. This is known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the animal or person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience. For example, if you do not complete your homework, you give your teacher £5. You will complete your homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework. Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so the electric current would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they would repeat the action again and again. In fact Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light just before the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came on because they knew that this would stop the electric current being switched on. These two learned responses are known as Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning. Punishment (weakens behavior) Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows. Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance, deducting someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable behavior. Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement. There are many problems with using punishment, such as: Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is no longer present. Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems. Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school. Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do, punishment only tells you what not to do. Edward Thorndike: The Law of Effect The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that: "responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation. Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that lead to the development of operant conditioning within Behaviorism. Whereas classical conditioning depends on developing associations between events, operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of our behavior. Skinner wasn’t the first psychologist to study learning by consequences. Indeed, Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is built on the ideas of Edward Thorndike. Thorndike studied learning in animals (usually cats). He devised a classic experiment in which he used a puzzle box (see fig. 1) to empirically test the laws of learning. Fig 1: Simplified graph of the result of the puzzle box experiment. He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was encourage to escape to reach a scrap of fish placed outside. Thorndike would put a cat into the box and time how long it took to escape. The cats experimented with different ways to escape the puzzle box and reach the fish. Eventually they would stumble upon the lever which opened the cage. When it had escaped it was put in again, and once more the time it took to escape was noted. In successive trials the cats would learn that pressing the lever would have favorable consequences and they would adopt this behavior, becoming increasingly quick at pressing the lever. Edward Thorndike put forward a “Law of effect” which stated that any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.  Social Cognitive Theory by Albert Bandura. Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. The unique feature of SCT is the emphasis on social influence and its emphasis on external and internal social reinforcement. SCT considers the unique way in which individuals acquire and maintain behavior, while also considering the social environment in which individuals perform the behavior. The theory takes into account a person's past experiences, which factor into whether behavioral action will occur. These past experiences influences reinforcements, expectations, and expectancies, all of which shape whether a person will engage in a specific behavior and the reasons why a person engages in that behavior. Many theories of behavior used in health promotion do not consider maintenance of behavior, but rather focus on initiating behavior. This is unfortunate as maintenance of behavior, and not just initiation of behavior, is the true goal in public health. The goal of SCT is to explain how people regulate their behavior through control and reinforcement to achieve goal-directed behavior that can be maintained over time. The first five constructs were developed as part of the SLT; the construct of self-efficacy was added when the theory evolved into SCT. 1. Reciprocal Determinism - This is the central concept of SCT. This refers to the dynamic and reciprocal interaction of person (individual with a set of learned experiences), environment (external social context), and behavior (responses to stimuli to achieve goals). 2. Behavioral Capability - This refers to a person's actual ability to perform a behavior through essential knowledge and skills. In order to successfully perform a behavior, a person must know what to do and how to do it. People learn from the consequences of their behavior, which also affects the environment in which they live. 3. Observational Learning - This asserts that people can witness and observe a behavior conducted by others, and then reproduce those actions. This is often exhibited through "modeling" of behaviors. If individuals see successful demonstration of a behavior, they can also complete the behavior successfully. 4. Reinforcements - This refers to the internal or external responses to a person's behavior that affect the likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior. Reinforcements can be self-initiated or in the environment, and reinforcements can be positive or negative. This is the construct of SCT that most closely ties to the reciprocal relationship between behavior and environment. 5. Expectations - This refers to the anticipated consequences of a person's behavior. Outcome expectations can be health-related or not health-related. People anticipate the consequences of their actions before engaging in the behavior, and these anticipated consequences can influence successful completion of the behavior. Expectations derive largely from previous experience. While expectancies also derive from previous experience, expectancies focus on the value that is placed on the outcome and are subjective to the individual. 6. Self-efficacy - This refers to the level of a person's confidence in his or her ability to successfully perform a behavior. Self-efficacy is unique to SCT although other theories have added this construct at later dates, such as the Theory of Planned Behavior. Self- efficacy is influenced by a person's specific capabilities and other individual factors, as well as by environmental factors (barriers and facilitators).  Insightful Learning (Perceptual Learning) The earliest and best-known experiments on insightful learning were done by Wolfgang Kohler (1887 – 1967), a Gestalt psychologist. In observing chimpanzees, Kohler saw that animas are capable of acquiring a new response in one burst of insight, wherein the solution of a problem becomes suddenly clear. It is the solution of a problem by a sudden adaptive reorganization of experience. There are three process of insight learning: 1. Surveying relevant conditions of the presented stimulus and seeking their relationship. 2. Determing the “instrumental value” of a tool, either object or information, as a means of solving a problem or achieving a goal. 3. “Eureka” experience (Aha!) Other Types of Learning Sign Learning may be defined as an acquired expectation that one stimulus will be followed by another if a familiar behavior route is taken. Programmed Learning is a method of self-instruction consisting of frames (a series of short steps) and responses. It uses instructional materials where one works at one’s own rate, makes active responses to a step-by-step program, and gets immediate knowledge of results. The self-instructional materials can be presented by mechanical devices, called teaching machines, which come in various forms. Learning to Learn past experiences with similar problems increase the likelihood that certain relationships will be learned and will be applied to the solutions. Research conducted on monkeys (Harlow 1949) demonstrated the occurrences of learning sets. In some circumstances, the monkeys appeared to catch on to principles involved in a series of learning tasks. Multiple-Response Learning is acquired via patterns of sequences of movements or words. It involves more than one identifiable act, with the order of events usually fixed by the demands of the situation. In complex skills, whether verbal or motor, patterns of responses are acquired gradually and become organized. A sensorimotor skill, like driving a car or riding a bicycle, involves muscular movement under sensory control. Separate responses, such as watching the traffic and other vehicles on the road, are connected into sequences and patterns. Practicing the skills each day (distributed practice) is generally more effective than consecutive practice within one period (massed practice). Associative Learning (Habit Formation) is behavior learned through habit formation or by associating S (Stimulus) and R (Response). This is illustrated in experiments on classical conditioning, operant conditioning, multiple-response learning, and escape and avoidance learning. Rational Learning knowledge is the outcome sought in this type of learning. Rational learning is intellectual in nature and involves the process of abstraction by which concepts are formed. Motor Learning The outcome sought in this type of learning is skills, which may be described as the adaptation of movement of stimuli resulting in speed and precision of performance. Associational Learning the outcome sought in this type of learning is the acquisition and retention of facts and information. This involves the development of associative patterns of learning by which ideas and experiences are retained, recalled, and reorganized through the process of linking together or establishing relationships between and among ideas and experiences, so that one will serve as the stimulus for the revival and recall of the other previously experienced. Appreciation Learning the outcome sought in this type of learning is appreciation or aesthetic improvement. Appreciation involves both intellectual and emotional elements. It is a sensitive awareness to and perception of the importance or utility of information in relation to other fields and in the development of attitudes and tastes. Appreciation learning involves the process of acquiring attitudes, ideals, satisfaction, judgement, and knowledge concerning values as well as the recognition of worth and importance which the learner gains from participating in the learning activities. Memory is the faculty by which the brain encodes, stores, and retrieves information. It is a record of experience for guiding future action. Humans process stimuli first with their sensory memory; that information is typically held in the brain for less than a second, which may explain why most people report that when shown an object quickly, they feel like they take in more details than they're able to recall later. Next, the information is transferred to short-term memory or working memory, which allows someone to mull things over and hold key information in their mind. Finally, people store past events and patterns in their long-term memory, also known as episodic or semantic memory. Understanding Memory There are many different types of memory. There's the type of memory that you can dredge up without any effort at all; and there's the category where you must sweat to imprint facts and knowledge. Here is an overview, from various kinds of long-term memory, where you can recall events forever, as well as short-term, procedural, sensory, among others. What is long-term memory? This is how you store life-time memories, your first kiss, your wedding day, and the birth of your baby. The more weight you put on the event, the more likely it will be coded into your memory stores. The two types of memory stored in long-term are implicit and explicit. What is implicit memory? This type of memory is trouble-free and unintentional. How do you, after hearing a melody once, recall that melody without any effort on your part? Implicit memory is unconscious and involuntary in nature. What is explicit memory? This is a type of long-term memory, and is the opposite of implicit memory. Trying to study and remember hard facts for an exam requires intentional and conscious thinking. Semantic and episodic memory are two types of explicit memory, also called declarative memory. What is semantic memory? If you are great at trivia games and can dredge up, for example, the names of obscure ancient capitals, then you have good semantic memory. This type of recall is used for everyday information such as the meaning of a word, facts, and general knowledge. What is episodic memory? When you recollect and recapture particular events from your past, it won’t be the same memory that a friend might have of that same event. This memory is unique to you. Episodic memory relies on semantic memory. An example might be the very first movie you ever saw. What is procedural memory? Once you learn how to ride a bike or play the piano or drive a car, your procedural memory takes over. It’s the instant recall of skills and actions that you acquire. This general mastery becomes ingrained and automatic. Procedural memory, also called motor memory, is a type of implicit memory. What is sensory memory?This short-term memory is related to your ability to retain impressions from the sensations you experience. What you smell, touch, hear, taste, and see is processed by the brain into sensory memories.  What is short-term memory? The brain stores short-term memories for about 20 to 30 seconds. This is why you forget where you put your keys or whether you turned the stove off. Research suggests that we can only store between five and nine events in short-term memory. What is working memory? You need working memory to retain and use information. This type of memory is needed in learning. A child with good working memory does well in math and reading, for example. Working memory may have a short duration, but practice and reusing the memory can encode information in long-term storage. How Memory Works Memory is malleable, and many researchers believe that it can be improved. But it also tends to decline naturally as people age and it can be corrupted by dementia as well as brain injury, trauma, or repeated stress. Even without impairment, human memory is notoriously untrustworthy. Different areas of the brain affect memory including the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the prefrontal cortex. What is the role of the hippocampus in memory? The hippocampus, located in the temporal lobe and part of the limbic system, is related to normal recognition and gives memories meaning and connects them to other memories. The hippocampus is also involved with spatial memory, which helps the brain map the surrounding world and find its way around a known place, for example. What is the role of the prefrontal cortex? Located in the frontal lobe, the prefrontal cortex is important in decision-making, speech, language, executive function, among other behaviors. This is also where short-term and working memory resides. What is the amygdala? Located near the hippocampus, the amygdala is linked to emotional memory, it also helps you discern emotions in others. Also part of the limbic system, the amygdala activates your flight-or-fight response when you are fearful, stressed, or threatened. Three Stages of the Learning/Memory Process Psychologists distinguish between three necessary stages in the learning and memory process: encoding, storage, and retrieval (Melton, 1963). Encoding is defined as the initial learning of information; storage refers to maintaining information over time; retrieval is the ability to access information when you need it. If you meet someone for the first time at a party, you need to encode her name (Lyn Goff) while you associate her name with her face. Then you need to maintain the information over time. If you see her a week later, you need to recognize her face and have it serve as a cue to retrieve her name. Any successful act of remembering requires that all three stages be intact. However, two types of errors can also occur. Forgetting is one type: you see the person you met at the party and you cannot recall her name. The other error is misremembering (false recall or false recognition): you see someone who looks like Lyn Goff and call the person by that name (false recognition of the face). Or, you might see the real Lyn Goff, recognize her face, but then call her by the name of another woman you met at the party (mis recall of her name). Theories of Forgetting Why cannot we recall everything that happened to us during the fourth, fifth, or tenth year of our life? There are several explanations none of which is completely satisfactory in itself. a. Passive Decay Through Disuse. This theory assumes that lapse of time is responsible for forgetting. b. Interference Effects. Present learning with what has been previously learned leads to forgetting.  c. Absence of Adequate Stimulation. Most often, we are unable to recall some event in the past because the appropriating stimuli are absent. d. Obliteration of the Memory Trace. This state occurs because of certain conditions other than time. One is the effect of emotional shock. e. Motivated forgetting. According to this principle, some of our memories become inaccessible to recall because of the negative effect on us. How can I sharpen my memory? You can boost memory with proven techniques like repeating what you hear out loud, writing information down, creating associations, and dividing new information into learnable chunks. Plus, simple and healthy life choices also help slow memory loss and improve cognition in your later years. What foods improve memory? There are foods that can improve cognitive function. Fatty fish, for example, contains docosahexaenoic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid, which reduces inflammation and improves the brain. Other foods that protect against memory loss are blueberries, turmeric, cruciferous vegetables like broccoli, nuts, and seeds. I. SUMMARRY Learning may be defined as a process that brings about a change in an individual’s way of responding as a result of practice or other experiences. Learning may also be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior. Behavior changes with experience. New patterns of behavior take place when the organism senses its world, interprets it, responds to it, and then responds to the consequences of its own responses. Once the organism has passed through this cycle, it is never the same again. Classical conditioning involves the learning of associations between stimuli, in situations where responses are reflexive or habitual. Operant conditioning involves the learning of association between responses and consequences, in situation where behavior is voluntary. The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that: "responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation. Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and behavior. The earliest and best-known experiments on insightful learning were done by Wolfgang Kohler (1887 – 1967), a Gestalt psychologist. In observing chimpanzees, Kohler saw that animas are capable of acquiring a new response in one burst of insight, wherein the solution of a problem becomes suddenly clear. Memory is a term used to label the way facts and past experiences are impressed, retained and later recalled. It is the power of remembering past objects and stages of consciousness. As a by-product of learning, it is that which is left over or retained after an interval of time. To have a good memory means that the individual has learned the appropriate responses. He has retained these effects of impression. Psychologists distinguish between three necessary stages in the learning and memory process: encoding, storage, and retrieval II. REFERENCES EZ 101 Study Keys Psycholgoy Second Edition (2006) Bon Baucum, Ph.D General Psychoglogy Fourth Edition (2005) Custodiosa A. Sanchez, Ph.D, Paz F. Abad, Ph.D, Loreto Jao, Ed.D General Psychology Sixth Edition (2012) Geraldine E. Tria, Josefina E. Gaerlan, Delia A. Limpingco. https://exploringyourmind.com/ivan-pavlov-theory-classical-conditioning/ McLeod, S. A. (2018, January 14). Edward Thorndike. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/edward-thorndike.html https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/basics/memory