ENVS 1000 Intro to Environmental Science Notes - Waste Management PDF

Chapter 15 InQuizitive - Waste: This photo was taken at the Payatas Dump in the Philippines. The scene shows an example of a(n) open dump. The people pictured live in the area and make their living scavenging for waste to sell. Living and working in the area exposes the residents...

Chapter 15 InQuizitive - Waste: This photo was taken at the Payatas Dump in the Philippines. The scene shows an example of a(n) open dump. The people pictured live in the area and make their living scavenging for waste to sell. Living and working in the area exposes the residents to a variety of polluting gases, including carbon dioxide and methane. The release of such gases due to the decomposition of waste by anaerobic bacteria is known as volatilization. ​The dominant waste disposal strategy in the United States is isolation. Open dumps have been replaced with sanitary landfills, which are designed to capture both liquid leachate and air pollutants to reduce the negative environmental impacts. Chapter 15 - Waste Notes (Week 10): 15.1 What is waste? ○ Waste stream: the steady flow of materials from “upstream” processes, such as extraction, production, and distribution, to their disposal, which is “downstream” ○ Municipal solid waste (MSW): the waste consumers dispose of from their households and businesses Nearly double of what it was in 1960  ○ Solid waste: all discarded material in solid, liquid, semisolid, or contained gaseous form ○ Life cycle assessment: an evaluation of the environmental impacts of all the steps involved in making, distributing, using, and ultimately disposing of a product Other impacts other than solid waste on the environment include: air pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, water use and pollution, and environmental health effect “The cradle to grave”: aka life cycle assessment Considers all the waste and impacts produced from when a product is made to when it is finally disposed of 15.2: What happens when waste is dumped? ○ Products of landfilling waste: Leachate water Methane Carbon dioxide ○ Open dump: unregulated waste disposal in uncovered and openly accessible piles Dumping in oceans also forms a type of open dump Effects: Litter problem - trash could blow away Attract vermin - attract rats, that can then spread disease Pollute - it can drain pollutants into the water system and emit air pollution as it decomposed, some of the waste may be hazardous  Two gasses are created (both greenhouse gasses), can strip dangerous compounds such as coatings, paints, and adhesives on manufactured goods can produce hazardous small but dangerous quantities of mercury, benzene, and chloroform: Methane (explosive) ○ Produced when waste provide a moist anoxic environment One with very low oxygen concentration Carbon dioxide Volatilization: the release of carbon dioxide and methane due to the decomposition of waste by anaerobic bacteria ○ Leachate: a foul-smelling, black, yellow, or orange soupy liquid that forms when rainwater or groundwater mixes with the decomposing waste at the dump As it seeps into surrounding soil and water, it creates underground columns of tainted liquid called plumes ○ Two common forms of city-based waste: sewage sludge: the waste remaining after sewage treatment) Organic waste and can cause eutrophication  ○ Leading to anoxic dead zones in shallow coastal waters Dredge spoils: sediment removed from bodies of water to improve navigation Sediments in dredge spoils often contain heavy metals (dense metals such as mercury or lead that are potentially toxic) ○ And industrial wastes that can accumulate in fish and other sea life in the marine food chain, which may in turn be consumed by humans ○ Basel convention: an international agreement negotiated to restrict movements of hazardous waste from more-developed to less developed countries US has not ratified the agreement Requires the notice and consent of waste-importing countries, prohibits waste export when the exporting country has reason to believe that the wastes will not be handled in an environmentally sound manner ○ E-waste: waste created from and by electronic devices Devices contain materials such as: gold, copper, lead, cadmium, and toxic flame retardants Some are legitimate, some have shipped these materials to developing countries where they are “de-manufactured” ○ What is the greatest challenge to the management of radioactive wastes? Duration of management required ○ Which products of landfilling can be used to generate energy? methane 15.3 how do we manage waste? ○ ○ Isolation: the segregation of waste from significant contact with humans or the wider environment normally below ground but sometimes in buildings aboveground Most common method of waste disposal in the US ○ Sanitary landfill: a disposal site that isolates and contains waste, manages its contents, and treats liquid and gas releases  Used for more common forms of waste Improve on the problems associated with open dumps ○ Geologic disposal: injecting or placing waste beneath Earth’s surface Ex: liquid wastes from industry, mining, and oil and gas production are injected through deep wells into dry, porous rock ○ Containment buildings: a structure that isolates the waste from the surrounding area while allowing constant monitoring and retrieval of it Have air-lock doors, liquid collection drains, and negative air-pressure and dust control systems Isolates the waste from the surrounding area while allowing constant monitoring and relatively easy retrieval of the waste ○ Hazardous waste is also stored in metal, fiberglass, or concrete tanks either above-or belowground or in earthen impoundment ponds ○ Challenges of isolation: Complete and permanent isolation is impossible  Leachate will eventually escape from facilities as synthetic liners degrade ○ Incineration - a waste disposal strategy A technology of controlled combustion at high temperatures with pollution controls in place Combustion: in waste disposal, the strategy of burning waste Three quarters of all incinerators are mass burn A technology that combusts solid waste first and then performs secondary combustion of the resulting gasses First performs primary combustion of the waste, then secondary combustion of the resulting gases These systems use filters to capture fine particles, liquid spray, to neutralize acid gasses, and emission control devices to capture some (but not all) pollutants ○ ○ Third strategy: conversion: A disposal strategy where waste is converted to something else useful Most often by harnessing energy from combustion and isolation to generate electricity Waste-to-energy facility: a place where the heat produced by incineration is used to power a steam turbine that generates electricity Bioreactor landfill: a disposal strategy using injected water and air to accelerate decomposition and reduce the volume of waste Injected into horizontal wells or trenches beneath the surface while recirculating leachate with sprayers ○ Accelerates waste decomposition by as much as 50% and reduces the volume of waste at the site Remediation: the process that converts hazardous waste to less-hazardous substances  Uses microorganisms and enzymes (bioremediation), fungi (mycoremediation), or plants (phytoremediation) in conditions that control temp, pH, moisture, oxygen, and nutrients 15.4 how do we recycle and reuse waste? ○ Municipal solid waste - four biggest components by weight: Paper and paper board, food scraps, yard trimmings, plastics ○ Recycling: a strategy of redefining “waste” as “resources” for new products, thus diverting materials from the waste stream Requires some processing (different than reusing) Still involves some energy inputs and environmental impacts ○ Primary recycling (closed-loop recycling): a process that converts waste materials into the same sort of product from which they came Aluminum cans recycled into another can Tends to be more efficient ○ Secondary recycling (open-loop recycling): a process that converts waste material from a product into a different sort of product Plastic water bottles made of PET into recycled polar fleece products Composting food waste Often referred to as “downcycling” ○ Recycling rate: percentage of municipal solid waste that gets recycled (processed into a new product)  ○ Design for recovery: a process where guidelines are established to standardize the manufacturer of materials and products in order to facilitate efficient recycling ○ Used materials do not need to be recycled if we can simply reuse, refurbish, or repurposed them Glass bottles ○ “Recyclable” The product could be recycled, but the label is not an assurance that it will actually be recycled  15.5 how does our culture affect consumption? ○ “Reduce, reuse, recycle” Written in the order we should follow ○ Consumption: the ways we use and dispose of material things ○ conspicuous consumption: the act of purchasing certain goods to project particular identities or images within society Like goods produced by expensive designer brands (meant to be seen) 15.6 can we reduce our waste? ○ Producer responsibility law: a law requiring manufacturers of products and packaging also to take responsibility for collections, recycling, reuse, or disposal Chapter 12 InQuizitive - Food: salinization of soil ○ intensive irrigation eutrophication of bodies of water ○ water pollution by synthetic fertilizers genetic erosion of crops ○ monoculture crops subsidence of land ○ water depletion of aquifers soil erosion ○ desertification overdrawn aquifers ○ subsidence intensive irrigation ○ leaching Chemicals increase in concentration within the bodies of organisms up the food chain. ○ bioaccumulation of toxins As an aquifer dries up, the land on top settles and formerly water-filled spaces collapse underneath. ○ subsidence Nitrogen and phosphorus in agricultural runoff can cause increased plant and algae growth in bodies of water. ○ eutrophication Excessive irrigation speeds up the process by which mineral elements move down to layers beneath the reach of plant roots. ○ leaching When land is cultivated intensively with farm machinery, plowed rows of crops leave large areas of bare soil vulnerable to redistribution by wind and water. ○ erosion Human populations grew substantially with the invention of agriculture about 10,000 years ago, as they began cultivating plants and animals. This allowed them to settle in an area and develop communities sustained by the food produced there. Humans  learned techniques to plant and grow food such as using organic matter to fertilize crops and leaving fields fallow to preserve the soil. Genetic erosion example: ○ By 1983, 96% of the sweet corn varieties cultivated in 1903 were lost as higher-yield varieties became a dominant single crop. Which of the following phrases correctly describe characteristics associated with concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) for particular kinds of livestock, and which do not? ○ Correct Answer(s) Artificial insemination revolutionized the breeding of pigs in CAFO systems. Chickens were the first type of livestock to be brought into CAFO systems. ○ Incorrect Answer(s) No seafood is subject to CAFO methods because it is caught wild in the ocean. Most cattle are now raised from birth to slaughter in feedlots. water pollution from manure lagoons ○ spread of infectious disease weakened genetic traits of wild species ○ aquaculture materials such as animal feed, bedding, pesticide residue, and dander ○ organic dust inclusion of antibiotics in daily feed ○ antibiotic-resistant bacteria population decline or even collapse ○ overfishing Bycatch example: ○ At the California Drift Gillnet Fishery, about 550 marine mammals were entangled or killed over 5 years. Chapter 12 - Food Notes (Week 9): 12.1 How did our modern agriculture develop? ○ Irrigation and organic fertilization started by ancient societies over 5000 years ago ○ Agriculture: the process of cultivating plants and domesticating animals for consumption ○ Organic matter: decaying plant and animal matter ○ Fallow: an agricultural field that remains unplanted for the purpose of restoring soil health ○ Synthetic fertilizers: an industrially produced chemical that has one or more of the primary nutrients for plant growth First manufactured in the early 20th century  Have one or more of the primary nutrients for plant growth ○ synthetic pesticides: an industrially produced chemical applied to combat insects and weeds in agriculture ○ genetically modified organisms (GMOs): a variety developed by splicing genetic material from one species into the DNA of another Genetically engineering agriculture to make them better for society’s health ○ A step in the modern genetic engineering of crops Cutting a desired gene trait into a plasmid using enzymes 12.2 How does modern agriculture impact the environment? ○ #mentioned ○ Agrobiodiversity: the variety and variability of genetic material in the life forms used by humans for food and other agricultural applications ○ genetic erosion: the process by which genetic diversity is lost ○ Monoculture: an agricultural practice of growing a single crop, plant, livestock species, or breed Can be more vulnerable to pests and diseases that will reduce yields  ○ Green revolution has had great success boosting yields of a narrow range of grains – corn, wheat, and rice – and focussing production on particular crops Come at the expense of the cultivation of a wide range of crops and the availability of of a healthier range of foods Changes in land use patterns also disrupt aspects of rural cultures that traditionally stored food reserves and provided community support during times of scarcity Less crop diversity ○ Most widely used herbicide is glyphosate, most commonly sold under the brand name Roundup Crops have been raised that are resistant to glyphosate, so farmers can use it freely without killing the crops the principal herbicide used in the production of GMO food crops ○ Erosion: a modern-day dust bowl ○ Irrigation systems can speed erosion Intensive irrigation also speeds a process called leaching, where water moves mineral elements deeper, potentially beneath the reach of plant roots Which causes salinization (salts build up in the soil) ○ Applying fertilizers can degrade soil, diminishing its fertility over time Excessive application of nitrogen fertilizers can acidify soil and degrade its natural organic matter content as it stimulate microbial decay processes As topsoil is lost or degraded, it becomes harder to feed ourselves  ○ Desertification: a process prompted by drought, extreme erosion, and soil infertility that causes land to lose more than 10% of its productivity ○ Synthetic fertilizer is another water-pollution source ○ Drilling and pumping technologies have enabled groundwater to supply 40% of the world’s irrigation water ○ As an aquifer dries up, the land o top settles in a process called subsidence, as formerly water-filled spaces collapse under the weight of overlying rock and soil Subsidence: the process of land settling as formerly water-filled spaces collapse under the weight of overlying rock and soil 12.3 How is meat production changing what we consume? ○ Livestock: animal raised for food Their manure was the primary fertilizer for the crops ○ Concentrated animal feeding operation (CAFO): an industrial livestock operation in which large numbers of animals are raised in confinement Economists estimate that the operating costs for CAFOs would be 7% to 10% higher if not for government crop subsidies ○ Concentrated animal feeding operations began with chickens ○ Cows are ruminant Ruminant: an animal with a digestive system that can turn plant-based cellulose into protein Are equipped to process grass rather than grain ○ Zilmac boosts muscle growth in the final 3 weeks before slaughter (for cows), adding about 30 pounds of meat to each animal ○ Aquaculture: the practice of raising seafood in controlled ponds, tanks, or pens 12.4 is conventional meat production sustainable? ○ Animal wastes carry microorganisms that can spread infectious diseases that can contaminate well water E coli, salmonella  ○ Organic dust: a dust that comes from materials such as animal feed, bedding, pesticide residues, animal wastes, and dander ○ The digestive process and manure from livestock account for about ⅓ of the anthropogenic methane emissions both in the US and globally ○ Overfishing: a practice that causes the quantity of fish caught to exceed the productive capacity of a species ○ Open-water fishing also carries the environmental impact of bycatch Bycatch: the incidental capture of non-food species in fishing nets and lines ○ Aquaculture avoids overfishing and bycatch, but it can still weaken the genetic traits of wild fish if the farmed fish escape from their pens Amount of waste produced can also affect water quality ○ 12.5 How have our food systems changed? ○ Food system: the processes that link agricultural production to food consumption ○ Historically we consume roughly 3,000 species of plants Now, only 150, and 3 at significant scale: rice, maize (corn), and wheat ○ Food security: the affordable access to enough nutritious food to maintain dietary needs ○ Processed foods: food that is commercially processed to optimize ease of preparation, consumption, and storage ○ Overnourishment: excessive food intake that causes more energy use to be less than the food energy consumed Nutritionists see overnourishment as a global “nutritional transition” ○ Obesity: a condition of being substantially overweight because of excessive fat accumulation ○ More than 1.5 billion people currently consume more calories than they need but are deficient in essential microbial nutrients such as vitamins and minerals ○ Most agricultural operations occur at a very large scale, concentrated in a few geographic locations and cultivating fewer varieties of each food crop  12.6 how do our food choices link to sustainability? ○ ○ ○ Meat can also be certified organic if livestock are raised with organic feed, not treated with hormones or antibiotics, and have access to the outdoors ○ People argue that grass-fed cattle are more sustainable than those fed with organic grain These cattle can be raised on pastures that are not suitable for cropland Controlled grazing practices can actually prompt the health of native grassland ecosystems and rebuild the fertility of degraded agricultural soils ○ Fish eat other fish, so it’s difficult for farmers to guarantee that their fish are eating organic sources ○ Fair trade: a certification standard that assures customers that the price of a product provides for adequate wages and environmentally sustainable production and helps farming communities thrive  Can become a label that people will pay a premium for, increased sustainable production should follow, and recent research has demonstrated that Fair Trade is showing success as a market-based program ○ Consumer-supported agriculture (CSA): having consumers pay a subscription to a farm in exchange for a regular supply of food grown on that farm, and sometimes the consumer can even contribute labor on the farm as payment ○ Conservation agriculture - three simple principles Minimal soil disturbance (no-till) Planting cover crops Adopting complex crop rotations Chapter 9 InQuizitive - Land: Faults true statements: ○ A well-known fault is the San Andreas in California. ○ Large masses of rock moving against each other at a fault can cause earthquakes. ○ Faults are the fractures between borders of tectonic plates. Faults false statement: ○ Faults are found only at the junction of land masses and the oceans. Soil conserving methods ○ planting multiple crops in the same area ○ shifting plantings regularly ○ forming planting mounds Soil depleting methods ○ planting only one type of crop in a large area ○ clearing forested hillsides Wise to support ○ retaining as much of the natural vegetation as possible ○ choosing permeable or semipermeable paving materials ○ sitting the town away from the base of the mountain Wise to not support ○ sitting the town along the banks of the river ○ using the soil in the floodplain as fill for site development Mines have successfully reclaimed a number of regions the section of Earth composed primarily of solid but ductile rock that is malleable enough to flow and change shape ○ mantle the area of the mantle with malleable materials that can flow ○ asthenosphere the center of Earth consisting of a solid inner section made mainly of iron and nickel, and a liquid outer section made primarily of these same metals ○ core  the section of Earth composed of the crust and the first few kilometers of the mantle ○ lithosphere an area of space around Earth where the planet’s magnetic field traps and redirects highly charged particles from the Sun toward the poles ○ magnetosphere Correct reasons for why desert and tropical soils have relatively little humus ○ Although tropical soils could accumulate plenty of plant biomass, consistent year-round high temperatures and abundant water promote rapid decomposition, so humus does not have an opportunity to accumulate. ○ In deserts, accumulation of dead plant material is slow and unpredictable due to the relatively low plant biomass and different plant forms adapted to low water availability. Incorrect reasons: ○ High temperatures in deserts promote rapid decomposition, preventing an accumulation of humus. ○ Tropical plants live year-round and rarely lose their leaves or die, preventing an accumulation of humus. water pollution ○ Heavy metals and acidic drainage are present in mine waste, which finds its way into water sources. Subsidence ○ Underground mining causes land at the surface to sink or even collapse into localized sinkholes. destruction of aquatic habitats ○ Sand and gravel are mined from areas such as riverbeds and beaches. major changes to topography ○ Mountaintop removal mining fills in valleys and levels in hilly terrain. ○ Open-pit mines create enormous artificial craters. Earth’s crust is divided into major and minor tectonic plates that move on top of denser material below them. Where these areas meet is referred to as a fault. The movement of bodies of rock along this geological feature has the potential to result in both earthquakes and the formation of volcanoes False: The creation of soil is a direct result of interactions between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere. sedimentary rock ○ dead matter from once-living organisms such as the calcium carbonate of shells from marine organisms that can be transformed into rock ○ sediment buried under many layers subject to pressures and temperatures high enough to trigger chemical changes igneous rock ○ rocks formed by the cooling of molten rock metamorphic rock ○ deeply buried materials subject to extreme heat and pressure that change one type of rock into another  Which of the following practices will improve the quality (tilth) of your garden soil, allowing you to have a productive garden? ○ Promotes Healthy Soil using no-till methods while planting adding compost to the soil planting a cover crop at the end of the growing season ○ Does not promote healthy soil tilling the soil at the end of the garden season applying a broad-spectrum insecticide/pesticide to the soil providing several inches of water daily (heavy irrigation) Chapter 9 - Land Notes (Week 8): Recitation 7 Document: chrome-extension://cefhlgghdlbobdpihfdadojifnpghbji/https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/Ws sProduct/535ef45hj1xldzsakwpuzjj5/GN_00001/20241023_11205311774_57_Soil_Report.pdf Core: the center of Earth, with a solid inner section and a liquid outer section both made primarily of iron and nickel Magnetosphere: an area of space around Earth that shields the planet from charged particles emitted from the sun ○ The particles would otherwise threaten life Mantle: the rock section of Earth above the core and below the crust ○ Otherwise known as the egg white section around Earth’s core ○ Made up of solid but ductile rock Means that it is not liquid, but malleable enough to flow and change shape under intense heat and pressure Crust: earth’s outermost layer ○ Overlains the mantle and is less dense and more brittle of a “shell” Lithosphere: the rigid outer portion of earth, consisting of the crust and the very top of the mantle ○ Extends down to roughly 100-150 km or 60-90 miles below ground ○ Bend, break, and ride atop of the asthenosphere Asthenosphere: an area of Earth’s mantle that is relatively pliable and is situated below the more rigid lithosphere ○ Contains denser and more malleable materials than in the rest of the mantle  Tectonic plate: a section of Earth’s crust that rides on top of denser material below; interactions among these plates shape Earth’s surface Fault: a fracture in earth’s crust, along with one body of rock slides past another ○ The movement of bodies of rock along these faults can produce earthquakes ○ Oceanic ridge - moving away ○ Trench - one goes under the other Three primary types of movement between plate ○ Divergent plate boundary Plates can spread apart from each other at a divergent plate boundary and form expanding areas such as rifts on lad or at spreading sea floors ○ Convergent plate boundary Plates collide instead at a convergent plate boundary If one colliding plate is made of denser oceanic crust, it is thrust under, or subducted, beneath the less dense plate A chain of volcanoes forms as molten rock makes its way to the surface above the area where the sinking slab begins to melt Andes mountain chain If both plates are made of similar low density continental rocks, it’s like pushing the cookie halves together and cursing them up into a high-standing pile Himalaya ○ Transform boundary When tectonic plates moves sideways relative to each other at a transform plate boundary Faults are the fractures between borders of tectonic plates Imagine sliding two halves of a cookie past each other San andreas fault  ○ Rock cycle: the geologic process by which earth recycles and renews its surface ○ Igneous rocks: rocks formed by the cooling of molten rock, whether deep belowground or at the surface ○ Subject to different types of weathering Physical and chemical processes that alter minerals and reduce rocks to smaller particles (such as gravel, sand, or silt) physical weathering: It greatly increase the surface area of the material Ex: when water freezes or salt crystals grow inside cracks in rocks, breaking the rocks apart over time Ex: plant roots and animal burrowing Ex: extreme changes in heat or pressure Chemical weathering: Ex: Water in particular contributes as it can dissolve some parts of rocks or react with and weaken them, creating new materials like clay Ex: oxidation occurs when the combination of minerals with oxygen causes the minerals to break down  ○ The rusting of iron Erosion: a process where natural forces–such as wind, water, ice, and gravity–move weathered rock particles ○ Ex: dust bowl Sediment: eroded material that is transported and accumulates in different places ○ Sediment buried under many layers of material experiences pressures and temperatures high enough to cement it together into solid sedimentary rock, a process known as lithification Sedimentary rock: rock formed when sediment buried under many layers of material cements together due to high pressures and temperatures Lithification: allows dead matter from once-living organisms to become rock Calcium carbonate shells of clams, oysters, and snails accumulate on the seafloor Plant matter in swampy environments can solidify over millions of years to produce coal Metamorphism: the process in which one type of rock changes to another under extreme heat and pressure (more than 150 degrees C and at least 1,500 times the atmospheric pressure we experience outside at sea level) ○ Metamorphic rock: the rock produced when one type of rock changes to another because of extreme heat and pressure ○ Ex: can change limestone into italian marble Mineral: a natural solid from earth’s crust that forms rocks. Minerals also provide key materials for many practical human endeavors ○ Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic are made of these Landform: a surface feature of the landscape Topography: the shape of the land Watershed: an area of land that drains to a particular point along a river or steam Floodplain: a place where floods frequently send water over the banks of a river or stream channel and deposit sediment  Delta: a landform created where the river deposits its sediment load as it flows into the ocean Depositional environments: the sediment storage areas such as major floodplains, river deltas, and estuaries (where sediments accumulate) Overland flow: when the soil is fully saturated with water or when the rain is falling so hard that it accumulates more quickly than the soil can absorb it Impervious: something that does not allow water to pass through it Soil: a complex mixture of weathered rock and mineral particles (sediment), dead and decaying plant and animal matter, and the multitude of organisms that live within these materials ○ Created by processes at earth’s surface, where the lithosphere (rocks) and the biosphere (life) interact, breaking down geologic source material, known as parent material, into different sized particles ○ Air spaces within the soil allow water to move down into the soil, a process known as infiltration, and larger spaces of air in the soil promote aeration Infiltration: in science, a process where water (or other liquids) moves down into the soil Desirable soil: loam - a mixture of roughly 40% sand, 40% slightly smaller silt particles, and 20% tiny clay particles Soil horizon: a layer in soil created by the action of living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) factors Soil profile: the collection of soil horizons at a location ○ Typically less than 3 feet deep ○ Example: O, A, B, and C O and A constitute the topsoil (typically the first 2-6 inches of soil, encompassing the top two soil horizons) Contains mix of materials that includes organic matter derived from living things O horizon is made of fallen leaves and other dead organic matter known as detritus that accumulates on the ground surface at the top of the soil profile ○ Detritus: support vast and diverse community of life (burrowing animals, insects, earthworms, fungi, and bacteria) A horizon is a mix of mineral fragments and organic matter ○ Water infiltrating through the A horizon drains away elements from there and delivers them to deeper soil horizons B horizon is composed primarily of mineral matter and constitutes what is typically called subsoil ○ Less fertile than topsoil and has less organic matter ○ Clays and elements dissolved in infiltrating water build up this lay  C horizon is composed primarily of weathered parent material such as rock and sediment Casting: soil of an undisturbed field can come to consist almost entirely of nutrient rich worm excrement Humus: in soil, a complex, dark, sticky organic material that can remain relatively stable over time ○ Decomposing at rate of less than 3% by weight per year ○ sticky and spongy and allows for a high degree of water and nutrient retention CLORPT: factors that account for soil ○ CL: climate The single most important factor in determining soil characteristics ○ O: organisms Highlights the role that biological communities play ○ R: relief or topography ○ P: parent material, the type of rock or sediment the soil formed from  Affects the size, texture, and chemical properties of the soil forming particles that weather from it ○ T: areas that have been able to accumulate soil over long periods without disturbance will have thicker, better developed soil profiles than those where soil formation is just beginning Tilth: the soil's overall structure and conditions that facilitate plant growth Water in topsoil also plays a role in two processes that inhibit plant growth ○ Salinization: when mineral salts build up in the solid, sometimes enough to impact growth High salt concentrations limit the ability of roots and back into the soil ○ Leaching: a process driven by water where mineral elements move down to deeper soil layers, potentially beneath the reach of plant roots, to be carried away in groundwater of steam flow Nematodes: a tiny wormlike creature that consumes bacteria and excretes nutrient rich manure in soil Tillage: preparing the soil for planting by breaking it up and turning it over with a plow When ranchers graze too many livestock in an area of too long, it expands areas of bare earth that are eroded quickly by rain and wind ○ Overgrazing can even create deserts, a process known as desertification Terracing, cover crops, no-till agriculture can improve soil health and reduce soil loss  ○ Most potential fertility: alfisol and mollisols Chapter 11 InQuizitive - Climate Change: Reinforcing feedback: ○ Warming diminishes ice and snow cover, reducing the reflectivity of Earth’s surface. ○ Warming causes the ocean to add more water vapor to the atmosphere, where it acts as a greenhouse gas. ○ Warming melts permafrost, causing methane to be released from the ground. Balancing feedback: ○ Warming of the ocean causes greater evaporation rates and more cloud cover, which reflects more solar radiation. ○ Warming of the ocean increases algae growth, leading to more absorption of CO2. Most recent range to the most ancient range of climate data ○ Argo float buoys in the ocean ○ Weather stations recording air temperature ○ Tree rings ○ Ice cores from antarctic glaciers Most prevalent greenhouse gas in the atmosphere ○ Water vapor valid statements about the instrumental period. ○ Temperature records have been recorded around the globe by weather stations, ocean vessels, and sea buoys, as well as weather satellites. ○ By 1860, thermometers were both reliable and commonplace False statements about the instrumental period ○ The temperature measurements in the instrumental period are only made up of the air temperature near the surface of Earth. ○ Scientists have been recording local temperatures since before the invention of the thermometer.  Solar energy that reaches Earth’s surface is absorbed and released as infrared radiation that rises up into the atmosphere. Some of this radiation passes into space, but much of it is absorbed by greenhouse gas molecules. Those molecules reradiate some of it toward Earth, where it has a warming effect. a greenhouse gas released by microbial processes linked to agricultural tilling, synthetic fertilizers, and livestock waste ○ nitrous oxide traps heat in the atmosphere about 25 times more effectively than CO2 ○ methane account(s) for about 80% of human-caused CO2 emissions ○ fossil fuels and cement production greenhouse gases used for aerosol sprays, refrigerants, solvents, and fire retardants ○ halocarbons diminishes the outflow of CO2 to vegetation ○ Deforestation Two-thirds of Earth’s current methane emissions are from human sources. The emissions are released from coal mines and from natural gas leaks at production facilities and in transmission pipelines. The decomposition of garbage in landfills is another significant human source of emissions. True about paleoclimates ○ Some proxies of paleoclimates can provide climate records dating back more than 500,000 years. ○ Understanding past climate can help explain how plants and animals responded to climate change. False about paleoclimates ○ Paleoclimates are direct measures of ancient climate conditions. ○ Paleoclimates are only useful to understanding the past climate on Earth. Warming ocean water undergoing thermal expansion contributes to sea-level rise Geothermal gradient: how temperature increases with depth in Earth’s crust due to decaying radioactive elements Chapter 11 - Climate (Climate Change) Notes Global climate: the average conditions over a significant period of time for the planet as a whole Instrumental period: the current era in which we have temperature records for Earth’s surface air temperature that are based on readings taken directly with instruments such as thermometers Temperature measurements from the ocean ○ Surface air temperature (SAT) measurements over land ○ Average marine air temperature (MAT) and sea surface water temperature (SST) measure water  Geothermal gradient: how temperature increases with depth in Earth’s crust due to decaying radioactive elements Proxy: not direct records of temperature, but rather observable and measurable phenomena that serve as indirect indicators of climate changes ○ Ex: Tree rings and coral skeletons Archive: material in which proxy is preserved ○ Ice cores Paleoclimate: ancient climates understood through use of proxies ○ Ex: ancient glacial sediments By studying the amount of particular oxygen isotopes deep in ancient glaciers, scientists can determine how cold it was when that layer of ice was formed Greenhouse effect: any system where a barrier causes the inflow of energy to outpace the outflow in a way that warms the interior. Specifically, the warming effect on Earth due to atmospheric greenhouse gasses that prevent radiant heat emitted from the surface from escaping space. ○ Entering a car on a sunny day The heat can enter, but cannot get out ○ Without this earth’s average surface temp would be about 60 degrees cooler at -2 farenheit Albedo: a measure of the reflectivity of the surface ○ Increasing albedo (more extensive year-round coverage of snow and ice) → decreases warming ○ Decreasing albedo (from loss of snow and ice coverage) → increasing warming Greenhouse gasses (GHGs): ○ Water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane CH4, nitrous oxide N2O,hydrofluorocarbon (HFC), etc ○ A gas in the atmosphere that redirects heat rising from Earth’s surface back toward the surface, causing a warming effect ○ CO2 is the most significant human caused greenhouse gas Continental drift ○ Movement of continents over geologic time ○ One factor associated with global climate changes Change of elevation, or “uplift” caused by colliding land masses also affect climate ○ Starts bc hills and mountains have more surface area than does flat land More land in hills and mountains is exposed to natural acid in droplets of rain Acid is formed when CO2 in the atmosphere dissolves in droplets of water ○ When it reacts with rocks at the surface, carbon compounds are freed and flow to the ocean in groundwater and surface water Eccentricity or shape of Earth’s orbit changes according to a 100000 year cycle, and the tilt and direction of Earth’s rotational axis also oscillate at intervals of 40,000 and 26,000 years, respectively  Milankovitch cycles: regular patterns of variation in the shape of Earth’s orbit and the tilt and direction of Earth’s rotational axis. These alter the amount of the Sun’s radiation and energy that reach Earth and its atmosphere ○ Eccentricity of orbit ○ obliquity/tilt of axis ○ Precession (wobble around axis of rotation) Surface current (one type of ocean current): affects the top 100-400 meters of water ○ Also starts because of the air moving above them ○ They do not travel in straight lines but are bent into large circular patterns called gyres Five main gyres in the oceans: The north atlantic, south atlantic, north pacific, south pacific, and indian oceans ○ Also interact with currents in deeper waters Coriolis effect: a force driven by earth’s rotation that deflects objects, winds, and currents on the surface of Earth and in the ocean or the atmosphere ○ Bends global airflow and creates winds that blow from east to west in equatorial latitudes Also referred to as trade winds ○ Also bend the surface ocean currents they generate in the same directions To the right in the northern hemisphere To the left in the southern hemisphere Deep currents: shaped by differences in water density ○ Which are caused by variations in their temperature Salinity: the concentration of salt in the water The colder and more saline the water, the greater the density Thermohaline conveyor: a large-scale ocean circulation driven by surface water and deep water ocean current and changes in water temperature and salinity  ○ El nino southern oscillation (ENSO): a cycle that significantly alters weather patterns in pacific and atlantic coastal areas every 2-10 years Upwelling: a place where ocean currents draw up colder water from the deep ○ Common on the western coasts of contents where surface water currents flow away from the edge of the continents Methane (CH4) is released from coal mines and natural gas leaks ○ Agricultural activities such as rice farming and livestock production are also major sources ○ Also produced by the decomposition of garbage landfills Less prominent than CO2 and CH4 is N20, gas produced by bacteria ○ Even more potent GHG than CH4 Capturing heat 310 times more effectively than CO2  ○ By product of industrial emissions Such as nylon production and fossil fuel combustion Table of Important Greenhouse gases ○ Over the past 50 years the troposphere has been warming while the stratosphere has been cooling ○ This does not support the idea that recent global warming is due primarily to natural changes in the amount of solar radiation If it were stratosphere would also be warming ○ Instead it the warming is coming from the planet itself (not from an off planet source) Hindcasting: simulations are run on a particular model to see how its predictions match up to actual or historical real-world observations ○ Scientists have found that when human factors are kept out of the models, the models do a good job simulating the actual global temperature changes, but fial to simulate the warming over the past 50 years Thermal expansion: the expansion of something as it warms, in particular, the water in the oceans, which increases sea level Sea-level rise is not uniform across earth ○ Some coastal areas are rising due to geologic uplift while others are sinking Climate change also causes ocean acidification (the ocean absorbing carbon dioxide) ○ 30% increase in acidity ○ The ocean absorbs around 25% of CO2 from the air Phenology: the study of seasonal timing of biological activities, such as the breeding, flowering, and migration of various species ○ Some species like frogs are breeding earlier Sea level has risen around 9-10 inches since the industrial age in 1880 EX:  ○ Reinforcing feedback: rising ocean temperatures melt sea ice. This causes the ocean to absorb – rather than reflect – heat, raising its temperature. Warming diminishes ice and snow cover, reducing the reflectivity of Earth’s surface. Warming causes the ocean to add more water vapor to the atmosphere, where it acts as a greenhouse gas. Warming melts permafrost, causing methane to be released from the ground. ○ Balancing feedback Warming of the ocean causes greater evaporation rates and more cloud cover, which reflects more solar radiation. Warming of the ocean increases algae growth, leading to more absorption of CO2. IPCC Climate Modelers: simulations model four different climate trajectories based on future economic activity, energy sources, population growth, land-use patterns, and other human factors Lecture 10/7/24 Climate - (https://canvas.upenn.edu/courses/1811845/files/139105847?module_item_id=31623255): Earth, the Sun, and the Seasons ○ ○ Earth is closer to the sun during winter than summer ○ Insolation (incoming solar radiation) ○ Rate of incoming energy outside the atmosphere: ~1360 W m^-2  ○ ○ Seasonal temperature contrasts are due to the tilt of Earth’s axis and angle of Sun’s rays ○ Earth’s axis is always tilted in same direction causing distribution of insolation to change with seasons Net radiation:  If the surface of the earth were to suddenly turn white, the temperature of the planet would decreases bc less insolation would be absorbed