Unit 1 Bio-103 Blurting Study.pdf

Chapter 1: Science - the study of the world around us and an attempt to make sense of it Applied Science - technology, used for practical purpose Theoretical science - experimentation, pure science for advancement of knowledge Types of research - quantitative (data, numbers, experiments, numerical d...

Chapter 1: Science - the study of the world around us and an attempt to make sense of it Applied Science - technology, used for practical purpose Theoretical science - experimentation, pure science for advancement of knowledge Types of research - quantitative (data, numbers, experiments, numerical data), qualitative/descriptive (observation, provides information), not always easy must be accurate. Neither are perfect. What is biology? Study of life. Studies in form and function (anatomy and physiology), diversity, evolution, problems and solutions, how it interacts with environment around it Characteristics of life - reproduction, requires water, homeostasis, responds to stimuli, adapts to changes, growth and development, organization, needs energy Organization - organized in some fashion, cellular to biosphere. Smallest to largest. Atom, Molecule, Macromolecule, Organelle/Structure, Cell, Tissue, Organ, Organ system, organism, population (species) community, ecosystem, biospher. Reproduction - can reproduce, even cells do this, or would go extinct Requires Water - all life requires water, required for chemical activity (metabolism), transportation of materials (blood, fluid), and reproduction Homeostasis - able to keep internal environment stable Responds to stimuli - responds to external stimuli, allows to avoid predators, find food, etc Adapts to changes - can adapt to changing environments (food, weather, etc). When change happens, life dies, adapts, or moves. Needs energy - all life requires energy, either consumed (heterotroph) or produced by self (autotrophes, photosynthesis), because living things metabolize Growth and development - changes in size and maturity Taxa - classification system for life (organization). Did King Phillip Cross Over Four Great Seas. Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species What are the three domains? Eubacteria, Archae, Eukarya What are the six kingdoms? Bacteria, Archaebacteria, Plantae, Fungi, Animalia, Protista What is a species? A group of organisms that can reproduce to make viable offspring (also able to reproduce). EG. Dog breeds are viable. horse+donkey=mule not viable Scientific names (binomial nomenclature) - two name naming system, genus species (homo sapiens). In italics Scientific Method (traditional) - observation, hypothesis, experimentation, draw conclusions. More modern interpretations are much more complex and inclusive. Deductive reasoning - General to specific, its cold wear a jacket Inductive reasoning - Specific to General, student does well because sitting at front Hypothesis - educated guess Theory - well-tested hypothesis Scientific Law - theory that has stood up against extensive testing and widely accepted What is an experiment? Tests a hypothesis, has control and experimental group, organized and methodical (repeatable) Control group - not changes, reference point for comparison Experimental (independent) variable - factor being tested in experiment (new food source) Responding (dependent) variable - factor that reacts to experimental variable (how bird reacts to new food source). Abiotic - not alive, environment Biotic - alive Chapter 2: The Atom - most basic unit of chemistry. Composed of a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons (electron cloud). Electron cloud - the area around a nucleus of an atom that holds electrons, it is “fuzzy’ as electrons gain and lose energy and move Electrons when gaining or losing energy - when gaining, fly farther away from nucleus (can even go away entirely from atom), when lose energy, they get closer to nucleus but never touch Subatomic particles - neutrons, protons, electrons. Protons - 1+ charge, found in nucleus, 1 AMU Neutrons - 0 charge, found in nucleus, 1 AMU Electrons - 1- charge, electron cloud, 0 AMU (have mass but insignificant to others) AMU - Atomic Mass Unit (6.012x10^-23), tiny Molecules/atoms have names but are abbreviated on periodic table (Carbon - C). Atomic Number (number of protons) - the number on top of a periodic card Average Atomic Mass - number on bottom of periodic card, average mass of all isotopes Isotopes - the same element with different number of neutrons Periodic Table Group - upward column on table. Elements have same number of valence electrons.1-8 (skip transition elements as more complex) Periodic Table Period - a row on periodic table. Elements have same number of electron shells. 1-7 Types of elements - Halogens, Alkaline earth metals, transition elements, metals, metalloids, non-metals, noble gasses Noble gasses - very stable, hard to change Halogens - very active, easier to change Valence electrons - the number of electrons in the outer shell of an atom, these are what react to form bonds. Maximum of 8 Chemical bonds - the chemical linkages between two atoms or molecules Ionic bonds - metal (+charge) + nonmetal (-charge). One metal atom gives up electrons becoming positive, the nonmetal gains electrons becoming negative. Ions - formed with gaining or losing of electrons Covalent bonds - when two nonmetals share of electrons, unequal is polar, equal is nonpolar Metallic bonds - metals to metals, metal ions surrounded by “sea of electrons” which shift around the ions. Forms of water - liquid (water), gas (steam), solid (ice). Liquid has definite volume and indefinite shape. Gas has indefinite volume and shape. Solid has definite volume and shape. Molecular structure of water - slight positive charge on hydrogen side, slight negative charge on opposite side, unequal sharing of electrons making it polar. Hydrogen bonds - bonds that form between slightly + H and slightly - O. Weak structure and allows movement. Cohesion - tendency for water molecules to want to stick to each other. Water bugs Adhesion - water sticks to other objects by using hydrogen bonds Capillary action - because of adhesion, water can climb up glass tubes, trunks of trees, etc Specific heat of water - 4190 J/(kgxk), how much energy to raise 1kg of water 1 degree. Water absorbs a lot of energy to heat up and also has to lose a lot of energy to cool down. How does water allow life on earth to exist? Body temperature stays stable, water on earth stabilizes earth temperature (why coastlines have more consistent temps). Water is a solvent because? Water is polar and can break down ionic bonds. Produces hydration shells around oppositely charged atoms/molecules. PH Scale - a scale that determines the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. 7 is basic (more H+) Chapter 3: What are the four most important types of biological molecules? Proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. Catalyst - something that speeds up reactions but doesn’t get used up Anabolic - builds proteins Catabolic - breaks down proteins Amino acids - small units of proteins, held together by peptide bonds, 20 in total (9 have to be ingested, others produced by body). Peptide Bonds - amino acids bond together through peptide bonds by hydration synthesis, amine group of one AA joins to the carboxyl group of another AA. Dehydration synthesis - combing two molecules by removing water Hydrolysis - addition of water molecule to break it down, releases energy Disaccharide - sugars composed of 2 monosaccharides (sucrose, lactose) Starches - chain of glucose molecules (amylose - linear chain of glucose, amylopectin - highly branched chain of glucose, glycogen - complex version of amylopectin) Cellulose fibers - wood fibers, cannot be broken down. Different chemical connection than starch. Has a staircase structure so enzymes can’t latch on to break down. Most organisms cannot break these down. Chitin - carbohydrate used for structure found in shells of crawfish Hydrophobic - hates water Hydrophilic - loves water Proteins: Monomer - amino acids. Building blocks of the cells. Functions: enzymes, transportation (hemoglobin), support (collagen [connective, very strong], keratin [tough structure, hairs/feathers], fibrin [produced by platelets, mesh like structure in blood clots]), defense (antibodies), regulation (hormones), storage (iron, ions, minerals stored by proteins), motion (muscle). Structure: primary (order of amino acids determined by mRNA), secondary (chain of AAs with secondary bonds like Beta sheet or alpha helix), tertiary (folding of secondary proteins), quaternary (2+ tertiary structures). Folding and refolding varies. Carbohydrates: Monomer is monosaccharides, forms into polysaccharides (complex sugars) and starches Functions: energy storage (short term, easily released). Structure: rigid (cellulose and chitin) Lipids: Made of fatty acids: examples are oil and cholesterol Functions: long term storage of energy, energy dense (fatty acids) in adapose tissue (fat), hard to break down again, makes cellular membranes (phospholipid bilayer), moisturizing, lubrication (rash, oil forms in contact areas). Nucleic Acids: DNA - ladder (double helix) structure. Deoxyribonucleic Acid, found in nucleus and composed of deoxyribose sugars. Is the genetic code/blueprint of cells. Uprights made of phosphate and sugar alternating, rungs made of 2 nitrogenous bases that link in the middle. RNA - Ribonucleic Acid, made of ribo-single strand. Copies genes (mRNA) and tRNA transports/links mRNA to protein being synthesized Nitrogenous bases - Adenine to Thymine (two connections), Guanine to Cytosine (three connections). Uracil to adenine in RNA Once code is exposed when DNA is unzipped, mRNA is able to copy it. Codes for order of amino acids. When copying goes wrong, mutation occurs - wrong amino acids order and cells change entirely. From Lab: Biuret’s reagent detects protein by turning violet color. Benedict’s reagent turns green/yellow/orange/red/brown when detecting reducing sugars. Lugols iodine turns black/blue when it detects starches. Sudan III bleeds across paper when detecting lipids. Chapter 4: Cell Theory: All organisms are composed of one or more cells, cells are the smallest, most basic living things. Cells form only through cell division where one cell divides into two new cells. Cells are small and limited in size. Material is difficult to exchange when the volume of a cell becomes too great which causes them to die. The largest cells are often very thin to avoid this (acetabularia). Human egg is the largest human cell. Nerve cells are the longest. Prokaryotic - Cells without a nucleus, simple structure, always have cell wall, flagellum function differently, DNA in plasmids (example is bacteria). 1-10 nm (1 billionth of a meter) Eukaryotic - Cells with a nucleus, more complex structure, sometimes have cell well, complex organelles with many functions, traditional flagella with microtubules action, DNA in chromosomes/chromatin in nucleus. 2-1000 nm (1 billionth of a meter). Plant cells - have cell wall, no centrioles, has chloroplasts, central vacuoles, fewer lysosomes Animal cell - no cell wall, centrioles, no chloroplasts or central vacuoles, many lysosomes Plasma/Cell Membrane - The phospholipid bilayer forms the framework of this. Polar head pushes away from the nonpolar tail, the second upside down layer pushes back, keeps it stable. Protects the cell, holds it together, controls movement of materials in and out, semipermeable. Imbedded proteins, carbohydrates, cholesterols help with transport, identification, support, etc. Fluid Mosaic Model - model to show the complex workings of cell membrane with embedded structures Anchoring (linker) proteins - When proteins are anchored to the cytoskeleton, they hold nearby membranes and structures still to help keep the shape and function of the cell. Organelle - membrane bound structures (1+ membranes) (nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplast, endoplasmic reticulum, etc) Structure - non-membrane bound structures in the cell (ribosome, cytoskeleton, DNA, etc) Mitochondria - organelle, powerhouse of the cell, produces energy (ATP) from sugar through cellular respiration, Double membrane. Crista - inner folded membrane of mitochondria Matrix - space inside/around crista in mitochondria ATP - adenosine triphosphate O-o-o-o structure, biological energy Nucleus - Control center of the cell, organelle, not necessarily center of cell, contains (DNA (chromatin or chromosomes), nucleolus, and nucleoplasm) Nuclear membrane - double membrane, protective barrier, ER attached to this Nucleolus - interior area of nucleus that produces ribosomes Nucleoplasm - jelly like fluid in nucleus, contains DNA (chromatin or chromosomes) Chromatin - stretched out DNA Chromosomes - coiled DNA around histones/proteins. Short and fat H shape. Only happens during mitosis Cytoplasm - jelly like fluid inside the cell in which organelles are suspended Cell wall - a rigid layer of nonliving materials surrounding plant cells and some other organisms. Not present in animals. Made of cellulose or chitin. Chloroplasts - photosynthetic organelle found in plants and some protists. Double membrane Thylakoid - disc like structure in chloroplast Granum - stack of thylakoids Stroma - fluid portion of the chloroplast, outside/around thylakoids Chlorophyll - green pigment found in chloroplasts Ribosomes - structure that reads mRNA and used that code to produce protein through protein synthesis, scattered in cytoplasm or attached to rough ER Protein synthesis - formation of proteins by using information contained in DNA and carried by mRNA Endoplasmic reticulum - membranous network/organelle in eukaryotic cells, typically attached to the nucleus. Rough ER - folded endoplasmic reticulum that is studded with ribosomes, “the protein factory” Smooth ER - tubular ER that is free of ribosomes, produces some lipids. Transportation system. Golgi apparatus - stack of smushed vacuoles in appearance. Modifies, sorts, packages proteins from ER. Typically has a lot of vacuoles/vesicles nearby. Vesicles/Vacuoles - membrane bound bubbles of materials, storage (vacuoles) transportation (vesicles). Lysosomes - a vesicles containing enzymes that functions for digestion, destruction, defense Peroxisome - organelle with various metabolic functions, produces hydrogen peroxide as byproduct and converts it to water Oxidation - loss of electrons Reduction - gain of electrons Cytoskeleton - gives cell overall shape. Microtubule - proteins forming tubes, has oppositely charged sides to add/remove proteins Actin filaments - ability to contract, fibrous Intermediate filaments - ‘tying together’ strands, connects organelles, cell membrane, microtubule, etc Cell movement - amoeboid movement (inch worm drifting), flagella, cilia Flagellum - long-hair like projection of cell, allows for movement or moving fluids over cell. Eukaryotes have a complex structure, 9 bundles of 3 microtubules shifting motion. Prokaryotes have one structure which spins to move. Cilia - similar to flagella in function, short hair-like projection, normally in large numbers, flat tops Centrioles - small flagella like structures used in cell replication (mitosis), 9 of 3 microtubules, positions for microtubules, nucleus, arrangement of cell, crucial in mitosis Be able to identify: basic animal cell structures, basic plant cell structures, basic bacteria cell structures. PRACTICE. Chapter 5: Plasma Membrane Proteins Functions: Transporter (channel or pore) - allows molecules in/out of cell, doorways to cell Enzymes - connect/lock onto molecules to change them, inside or outside of cell Cell surface receptor - when interacted with, produces response in (or out) of cell, identifier of cell Cell surface identity marker - allows ID of cell (recognize cells to eliminate infects), blood types eg Anchoring proteins - proteins attached to cytoskeleton, do not move much and stabilize nearby membranes and proteins. Forms of Cellular Transportations: Passive transportation - does not use energy (facilitated diffusion (channel/pore), osmosis, diffusion). Diffusion - Random movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration. Example of diffusion: Oxygen moves from the alveoli to red blood cells Osmosis - movement of water through a semipermeable membrane from a lower concentration of solutes to higher concentration of solutes. Example of osmosis: Plants absorb water from the soil into their roots which in turn moves up the stem to the leaves where it is used in photosynthesis Facilitated diffusion - use of channel/pore protein to enter/exit cell Bulk transportation - does use energy, endocytosis, exocytosis Endocytosis - bringing in large particles/quantities into cell Exocytosis - moving large particles/quantities out of cell Phagocytosis - solids (to eat) Pinocytosis - liquids (to drink) Receptor mediated endocytosis - molecules are bonded to specifically targeted protein receptors and brought into, creates a coated vesicle Active transportation - uses energy, pumps out/in material, pushing against concentration grain (sodium-potassium pump, proton pump, coupled transportation). Sodium-potassium pump - A pump where sodium goes through exocytosis using ATP via a protein, the protein then accepts potassium to the inside of the cell, continues in a loop Proton pump - An active transport protein in a cell membrane that uses ATP to transport hydrogen ions out of a cell against their concentration gradient, generating a membrane potential in the process. Coupled transport protein pump - A molecule "piggybacks" on another one to be transported against its concentration gradient. Example: Na-K pump releases sodium, gets taken back in with sugar. Solution - solvent (what does the dissolving) and a solute (what is dissolved) Hypertonic solution - solution has higher concentration of solutes than the cell, causes water to leave the cell, shrinks (flaccid) cell Hypotonic solution - solution has lower concentration of solutes than the cell, causes water to enter the cell, bloats cell (turgid) Lyses - when a cell ruptures due to hypotonic solution bloating Isotonic Solution - solution and cell have same osmotic pressure, equal concentration, cell keeps shape Junctions between cells: Tight junctions - block movement of chemicals through spaces separating cells (found in animal cells) Adhering junctions - attach cell to adjacent cell or extracellular matrix, some movement allowed (found in animal cells) Communicating (gap) junctions - allow small molecules to pass from one cell to another (found in animal cells) Plasmodesmata - narrow, membrane-lined channels that join plant cells