UNGP Notes-1 PDF

**UNGP** [Historical background:] - There are some universally accepted pre-requisites for the development of international organization. 1. The world must be divided into independent states. 2. There must be an awareness among them of the problems arising out of their co-existence....

**UNGP** [Historical background:] - There are some universally accepted pre-requisites for the development of international organization. 1. The world must be divided into independent states. 2. There must be an awareness among them of the problems arising out of their co-existence. 3. They must come to recognize the need for creation of institutional devices to regulate their relations with one another. - It was in the 19^th^ century that these pre-requisites work for 1^st^ time found to be existence in proper order to bring about the world of a modern international organization. - Direct predecessors of modern international organization can be classified in 3 main categories: 1. International conferences on world politics, meetings, at the end of major wars to align at settlements for the post war period or gathering in peace time to cope with crisis of one sort or another among states. 2. International conferences organized for the development of international laws. 3. The creation of chain of functional organization during 19^th^ century to deal with technical and administrative matters affecting more than 1 country. - Together these 3 forms of international corporation provided an experience that contributed to the coming two inter-government organizations: - League of nations united nations - To deal with both political and economic matters affecting all countries in 20^th^ century 1^st^ major EU conference to restore order after a was took place in 1648. It was the conference of 'West Phalia' which terminated the 30-year war. To that conference almost all then existing major states send representatives. States of Europe and world of international politics in 19^th^ century. - Thus, the origin of modern international organization can be found in European diplomacy from which the treaties for a new status hope in Europe emerged. - 'West Phalia' set the trend for similar international gatherings such as the Peace of Utrecht conference 1713 and a congress of Vienna 1815, which build European order after the wars of 'Louis XIV' and Napolean respectively. - The greatest achievements of this treaty were the conclusion, by negotiation of two multi-gathered treaties which legalise the new order of European international politics. the peace of Utrecht shattered imperial aspirations and creation of several independent sovereignties. - 3 new dynasties were recognised at the conference: The Protestants succession to British Crown was recognised by France, the elector of Brandenburg took title of Croatia and nice was returned to Victor Amadus who received international sanction as the monarch of Sicily. - During the 17^th^ and 18^th^ centuries, some new plans for international organizations surfaced. - The congress of Vienna was the 1^st^ of the series of international conferences that played an important part in 19^th^ century European politics. - The system thus initiated came to be known as 'Concert of Europe' by comparison with pre-Napolic and international gatherings. The congress of Vienna made a remarkable advance to international organizations to extent of 1. Political settlement reached 2. Diversity of Eco, social problems treated and see the adaption of a procedure for the congress itself. - In the socio-economical field efforts were made to abolish slavery and every international river bounding upon signatories' states was not duly declared open to commons but the states also pledged to regulate by common consent rules responding their navigation. - An effort was made to protect the minorities and human rights by asking Germany to take necessary steps to upgradation of civil status of Jews of Germany. - The congress gave a three-fold classification of diplomatic voice of EU states admit a basic equality in their negotiations with one another not only at conferences but also in day-to-day dealings - The congress of Vienna also marked a change in procedure adopting in conducing conference proceedings. - Earlier conferences had elected no preceding officers and appointed no committees for their work. This was not the case with congress of Vienna. The delegates foundations of political and international system which for a century shaped the course of European and to some extent world affairs **THE GRAND ALLIANCE 1815** Great Britain, Croatia, Russia, Austria and later France forged later undertook to assure that Vienna accords would be fulfilled and thereby preserving stability in Europe between 1818 and 1822. 4 meetings took place to discuss problems threatening European peace. The main purpose of the Grand Alliance was preservation of European status which had been threatened from time to time by the ambitions of great powers. The Grand Alliance contributed to the later conceptual developments of international organizations in 3 important respects. 1. Co-operation among states continued after the defeat of common enemy -- Frankel which was later admitted to consultation on basis of equality. 2. Meetings attended by representatives of major power were expected to take place from time to time. 3. The idea prevailed that peace in Europe and rest of world depended on reaching of agreements among major powers. These ideas dominated the concept of Europe during 19^th^ century. Major Powers -\> France, Britain, Croatia, Austria, Russia took decisions even where the smaller powers were admitted to their consultations. The Concert of Europe was an exclusive club of great powers whose members became self-appointed guardians of Europe. The purpose of these conferences became varied concerning subjects such as maintenance of peace, adoption of methods for resolving disputes, agreements upon rules for playing the competitive games of imperialism and deformulation of general standards for codification of international law. The 'Concert of Europe' prevented or limited some potential armed conflicts yet it was far from institutionalised international consultation that exist today in bodies like UN. There is some deficiency -- the Ad hoc nature of conferences of then complicated and delayed international co-operation. The influences were held by institution of sponsoring states. There was no principle of automatic representation of states. The consultative system was rather clumsy to handle crisis. Besides the opinion of small states was not given any weightage, yet the concert of Europe not only lead the principle of collective diplomatic consultation on all major international issues but also made considerable progress in developing the techniques and psychological pre-requisites for successful multi-lateral negotiations. **The Hague System** During 19^th^ century development of machinery for adjudication of international disputes was a further progress towards international organizations. While diplomats, philosophers and sovereigns were engaged in thinking of schemes for world peace and the world wars alternating between periods of peace and small wars, a significant development took place. This was the evolution of international law which was largely the wake of Dutch jurist \-\-- Jugo Grotius in the 17^th^ century. During the period of wars, Grotius felt the urgency for peace in working out a system of international law. He derived a great help from Roman ideas of 'Jus Gentium' and 'Jus Naturale' which work thereafter fused into a simple system of natural law from a body of customs which had been observed among states from time immemorial. [The Hague Peace Conference] have been regarded as landmarks in the development of international law and organizations. The two conferences of 1899 and 1907 attempted to revise, clarify and codify the whole body of international law affecting the conduct of war. Thereby, placing international law on a new footing. The conference also aimed at improving the international relations in general by such means as the government and peaceful settlement of disputes. They convent and initiate of Zār Nicholas -- roman of Russia -- his ideas were to hold conferences for establishing common codes of behaviour among nations. A principle that underlines modern international bodies Universal membership provided the bases for conferences. The 1^st^ conference comprised 21 states while 44 states took part in conference of 1907. The outbreak of WW I prevented further development of the system. Besides introducing the general ideas of holding periodic conferences, the Hague meetings also produced some other concrete results. One of them was establishment of a permanent court of international Arbitration and International Bureau headed by a secretary general was also permanent feature of the organization. The two Hague conference, the actual assemblies of major countries of world held for the expressed purpose of well being awarder of international law. They provided a code for land and Naval warfare without the development of international laws. The history of international law could not have begun. **Functional Co-operation in 19^th^ Century** A 2^nd^ development of major importance for later formation of international organization took place during the later part of 19^th^ century. By the time, it had become clear to the governments that international co-operation was necessary to carry on activities in such fields as postal and telegraphic services, public health and international transport to mention a few. Until then national governments had been acting by themselves to support such services, their programs therefore had to be limited in a range to develop their full potential. The required international co-operation demanded institutionalization rather than ad hoc international conferences. At least, 33 of these international unions were established between 1865 and 1914. They operated in such fields as transport, medicine, communication and economics. Co-operation by private persons through international organizations devoted to co-ordinating activities in many countries also come into being. Ex 'Red Cross Movement 1864' by Swiss 'The inter parliamentary Union' 'International Olympic committee' 'International Bureau to forbid trade in woman and children' Between 1865 and 1914 a total of 182 such organizations were created by non. Govt. sponsors. They engaged in range of activities, served as cleaning of house of information, centres for discussion on common problems, instruments for achieving co-ordination by agreement of national policies and as agencies for promoting the formulation and acceptance of minimum standards. These agencies possessed some common characteristics which are as follows: 1. They were created by multi-lateral treaties, their competence was limited to functional areas which sewed as a constitution that proclaimed the aims and objectives of organizations, laid down the institutional structure and defined the rights and duties of members. 2. They were all voluntary organizations based on equality of all member state. 3. The structure of these bodies had a three-fold division: a. A conference of all members which met at intervals to lay down basic policy of organization. b. A council which was main executive organ and was limited in membership and a secretariat which consisted of international civil servants to conduct the routine functions of organization. 4. Decision making was based on principle of majoritarism where all numbers had equality of voting rights. 5. Many organizations had distant legal status enabling them to own property, to sue and to be sues in some cases enjoy a major of diplomatic immunity. 6. In budgetarian methods, the organs were supported financially by member states who made contributions on principle to pay, equality, on a formula which was combination of these principles. 7. Decision-making was carried in 2 ways: - "Drafting international treaties and submitting them to member states for ratification or for adopting resolutions recommended actions. 8. Some organizations have administrative and minor policy making powers; thus, we find that the concept of international organizations which evolved during the 19^th^ century was partly the result of the concert of Europe which promoted the idea of international consultations, The Hague system which provides rules and regulations and public international unions which were actual symbols of cooperation. 1. They need to promote coordinated responses by the state to the problems of peaceful interactions in an era of growing economic, social and technical interdependence. 2. The corresponding need for containing and moderating conflict in political and military spheres also become operative in this period without the international consultation and institutional building that took place in 19^th^ century. The world could never have evolved towards 2 major international organizations of 20^th^ century. **LEAGUE OF NATIONS** Of all of the predecessors of UN, the League of Nations was the most significant one. It contributed innovative ideas, practices and Experiences which were later taken up by UN. The League of Nations the brain child of President Woodrow Wilson of USA. 14 points that said out the aims of his government: 1. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike. 2. An independent Polish state should be erected which should include territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations, 3which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international covenant. 3. The Turkish portion of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce of all nations under international guarantees. 4. Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea; and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determined by friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegiance and nationality; and international guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan states should be entered into. 5. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and assured should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development. 6. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be affected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality. 7. All French territory should be freed and invaded portions restored, and the wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years, should be righted, in order that peace may once more be made secure in the interest of all. 8. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as this will serve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set and determined for the government of their relations with one another. Without this healing act the whole structure and validity of international law is forever impaired. 9. The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and freest cooperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the independent determination of her own political development and national policy and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. The treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their good will, of their comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their own interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy. 10. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is to be determined. 11. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety. 12. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance. 13. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of international covenants. 14. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international understandings of any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view. **Setting up of UN** As the league of nations was a product of WW1 so UN is a product of WW2. During the war period the idea that a new major international organization would be leaded to maintain peace and security in the post was world. Gradually gained popularity among elite powers. The UN history starts with the declaration made by President R. on Jan 6, 1941 to the congress of USA. The core freedoms declared in his speech were: a. Freedom of speech and expression b. Freedom of every person to worship God in his own way. c. Freedom from want d. Freedom from fear These ideas formed the basis on which the UN was built. The US had not initially entered WW2 and had of doing so in the immediate future. Despite this, President R. interest in the events taking place in Europe boost the elite powers. As a result of this 6 months later on June 12, 1941 an inter-allied declaration was signed in London, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and S. Africa with the exiled governments of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, France and Greece, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland and Yugoslavia put forward their views that only true basis of gaining co-operation among nations of world. To enjoy socio economic security, they would have to menace of aggression which could be done by all peace-loving nations by working together in both war and peace. On August 9, 1941 President R. ask British PM Winston Churchill to draw a joint declaration to guide their policies. The outcome was Atlantic Charter signed by both on August 12, 1941. The basic principles put forward in this were: 1. These countries seek no encroachment to other countries. 2. They desire to see no territorial dangers that do not accord with a freely expressed wish of people concerned. 3. They respect the right of all people to choose form of government under which they live and wish to see sovereign rights and seek government to restore who have been forcefully deprived. 4. They will endeavour to further the enjoyment by all states of access on equal terms to the trade and raw materials of the world which are needed for their economic prosperity. 5. They strive to dream about fullest collaboration for civil between all nations in economic field, which object of securing for all, improved labour standards, economic advancements and social security. 6. After final destruction of Nazi tyranny, they hope to see establish peace which would afford the assurance that all men in all lands live out their lives in freedom, free from fear. 7. Such a peace should enable men to transfer seas and without hinderance. 8. They believed that all nations of world for realistic and spiritual reasons must come to abandonment of use of force and the establishment of wider and more permanent system of security, disarmament is essential. 4 months later, US joined the war after Japan attacked Pearl Harbour. Term UN was coined by President R. on Jan 1, 1942. The declaration by UN was signed in Washington by representation of 26 nations. This 'declaration of UN' stated that Atlantic charter would be viewed as a common program for allied states. Its signatories pledged to give each other full support in war effort and not to conclude a separate peace with enemies. Hardly a blueprint, the declaration set out the principles for a WIDER AND PERMANENT system of general security. Even the use of the term UN was tentative. The Casablanca conference held in Jan 1943 was another step towards formation of a new institution. The participants- Churchill and Roosevelt discussed the role of their countries, would play in future international system. Search for new international institution was intensified during 1943. Although the idea of new international organization got some attention at **Tehran Conference 1943** which was attended by Churchill, Stalin and Roosevelt. The most important planning effort took place in Washington from August to October 1944. This was the **Dumbarton oaks Conference** named after estate where meeting was held. The conference members at Dumbarton Oaks decided to retain the name 'UN'. It symbolised their intention of maintaining the common purposes of the war and continuing cooperation in peace time. Earlier, distinction was made between powers of General assembly, where all members would be represented and those of security council whose members had specialised duties related to keeping the peace. **Yalta Conference** of Feb 1945, Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin dealt the issues that had not been resolved at Dumbarton Oaks conference. As per colonial question, Yalta conference agreed to system of trusteeship limited to 3 categories. 1. Former mandates of League of Nations: These were former colonies of Germany and Turkey that had been put under supervision of league. Some of them had not yet gained independence. 2. Territories to be taken from Germany and Japan after WW2. 3. Territories that present colonial powers would voluntarily put under supervision of projected UN trusteeship system. The British were reassured that no part of their Empire would be put under control of UN without their agreement was controlled of other colonies to be disturbed as provided for in the trusteeship system. Voting and decision making received much attention. Yalta, where formulae dealing with these matters were worked out. Permanent members of Security council received right to New except on procedural matters. In other words, views of the great 5 powers have to be unanimous for the council to act. Soviet Union agreed that parties to conflict have no vote in security council when issue was a matter of peaceful settlement of dispute. On membership issues, it was agreed to admit to UN in addition to Soviet Union, the Ukrainian SSR and the ByeloRussion SSR, France and China would join UN. The soviet and UK as "sponsoring powers" and would be given permanent position in Security council with great powers like 'veto'. **Pots dam conference** July 1945; USA, USSR, Britain, France, China ratified UN charter to be adopted at the San Fransico conference. So, in a sense, the UN actually came into being by Potsdam conference. The important of this conference of July 1945 lies in fact that the victories of WW2 were divided in this conference for 1^st^ time on their views on economic policy of occupation and on future structure of German state. At Potsdam, the Russians, whose separations in kind or cash was intense, secured agreement for removals from their zone of occupation to meet Russian and Polish separation claims, but nothing was settled about the extent of the place. The conference was accompanied by disagreement of Political structure of Germany. The hostility between USSR and Western allies started for 1^st^ time in Potsdam conference. Towards end of July 1945, Britain, US and Soviet at Potsdam conference called on Japan to surrender unconditionally. On August 6, 194, the 1^st^ atom bomb was dropped on Hiroshima. On 9 August, Nagasaki was destroyed by 2^nd^ atom bomb. The UN conference on international organization. Penned on April 25, 1945 in San Fransisco and ended on July 26, 1945 with an agreement of UN charter. **[San Fransisco Conference]** Attended by 200 representatives of 60 states, held on April 26, 1945 and during this conference there appeared two important division: -Large-small states -Colonial and non-colonial powers. Whenever major powers showed disagreement the small powers views gain important. Generally smaller states sought to strengthen powers of general assembly. Where they would always be represented as against those of the more exclusive security council. As per colonial issues the non-administrative powers sought to make colonial powers more accountable of administration of colonial territories. The issue of colonialism that post was world was resolved with complex set of provision in charter. Furthermore, at assistance of US military special categories of trust territories were created. These supposedly had strategic values and were to be administered by Security council rather than trusteeship council. The charter was formerly signed on 26 June 1945 y 51 states. It came into force October 24, 1945, after 5 big powers and majority of signatories had ratified it. **Principles of UN** The purposes of UN are indicated in its preamble and are laid down in clearer terms and Article 1 of charter. The preamble shows that the charter of UN is born of the experiences of a devasting war and that it holds out hope of a lasting peace based on recognition of fundamental human rights which have been the causalities of war. On a recognition of sovereign equality of all states and on better social and economic conditions for the millions who had been victims of oppression and exploitation. The purposes of UN are laid down in Article of the charter are: 1. To maintain international peace and security. 2. To develop friendly relations among nations. 3. To achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of an economical, social, cultural or humanitarian character. 4. To be a centre for harmonising the alliance of nations in the attainment of their common ends. 1. Organization is based on principle of the sovereign equality of all its members. 2. All members shall fulfil in good faith their obligations as set forth in the charter. 3. The members shall settle their disputes by peaceful means. 4. All members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against territorial integrity of political dependence of any state or in any other manner inconsistent with purposes of UN. 5. All members shall assist UN in any action it takes in accordance with the charter. 6. The organization shall see to it that non members also act in accordance with the charter. 7. The UN shall not intervene which are essentially domestic jurisdiction of any state. The working of UN during last 50 years has revealed the commitment of members to fulfil in good faith-their obligation as set forth in the charter has been an auspicious hope. It is laid down in Article 55: "with the view to create conditions of stability and will being which are necessary for peaceful and friendly relations among nations based on respect for principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples. the UN shall promote: 1. Higher standards of living, full employment and conditions of economic and social progress and development. 2. Solving of international economic, social health and related problems and international cultural, education cooperation. 3. Universal respect for an observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction on sex, religion and race. The principle of assistance to UN in any action it takes in accordance with charter has further been developed in Article 43 of charter. However, if members follow 3^rd^ and 4^th^ principle, they can settle disputes by peaceful means: To ensure that non-members act in accordance with principle indicates the universal and embracing character of organization. The principle of UN not to intervene in matters that are within domestic jurisdiction of states, restricts the authority of organization. The principle of sovereign equality of members and non-intervention by UN in domestic matters may be classified as matter of distinct. **Unit II** **Security Council:** In contrast to league of nations the UN recognised great power prerogatives in security council. UN Security council was given the main responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. It was made up initially of 2 states then after 1965 of 15 states. It included 5 permanent members- Russia, US, UK, France and China. As well as 10 non-permanent members. Unlike those of league the decisions of Security council are binding and must only be passed by a majority or 9 out of 15 members. As well as each of the 5 permanent members. These 5 members therefore have veto power over all Security council decisions. 5 permanent members of Security council were seen as the major powers when UN was founded and they were granted a veto on the view that if great powers were not given a privilege position the UN could not work. There have been widespread and frequent polls for reform of Security council considers unreal to international peace, it first explores ways to settle dispute peacefully under terms of charter VI of UN charter. It may suggest principles for a settlement on mediation. In the event of fighting Security council tries to secure a ceasefire. It may send a peace keeping mission to help the parties to maintain peace. Council can take measures to enforce its decisions under chapter VII of charter. For example: it can impose sanctions or order an arm embargo on rare occasions. The security council has authority member states to use all necessary means including collective military action to see that its decisions are carried out. The council also make recommendations to general assembly on the application of a new secretary general and administration of new members to UN. **General Assembly:** The recognition of power politics through veto power in the security council can be contrasted with a universalist principles underline other organs of UN. All members states are representatives in General assembly 'part of nations' which means to consider the world's most pressing problems. Each state has 1 vote. 2/3^rd^ majority in assembly is required for discussion on world issues, admission of new members, UN budget etc. A simple majority is required for other matters. However, decision reached by general assembly have only status of recommendation rather than binding decision. The general assembly can consider any matter within the scope of UN charter. Since general assembly resolutions are non-binding, they can't force any action by any state it is recommended on important indications of world opinion and representing moral authority of community of nations. **Secretariat:** The secretariat carries out the substantive and administrative work of UN as directed by general assembly, security council and other organs. It is led by secretary general who provided overall administrative guidelines. It consists of deputies, officers total 40K of world. On the recommendation of other bodies, the secretariat also carries out number of research functions and some quasi-management functions. Yet role of secretariat remains bureaucratic and lacks political power and right of initiative. For example- the commission of European Union. One exception to this is power of secretary general under Article 99 of charter to bring situations that are likely to lead to breakdown of international peace and security to attention of security council. This act was a legal basis for remarkable expansion of diplomatic role of secretary general compared with its league predecessor. Due to this, the secretary general is empowered to become involved in a large range of areas that can be loosely interpreted as threats to peace including economic and social problems and humanitarian crisis. **Economic and Social Council:** It is under the authority of general assembly is intended to co-ordinate the economic and social work of UN and UN family of organs. It also consults with non-governmental organizations. Thereby, maintaining a wider link between UN and civil society. The economic and social council's sub bodies including common status of women, economic commission of Africa and other bodies. Along with secretariat and general assembly the economic and social council is responsible for overseeing the activities of large number of other institutions known as UN system. This includes specialised agencies and programs funds. Whereas league of nations attributed for economic and social council to league assembly, the charter of UN established socio-economic council to oversee economic and social institutions. **Trusteeship Council:** When UN was created the trusteeship council was established to provide international supervision to trust members and adequate steps taken to prepare them for self-governance. By 1994, all trust territories have attained self-governance or independence either as separate states or by joining other states. The trusteeship consists of 5 permanent members of security council. It has amended its rules to allow it to meet when necessary. **International Court of Justice:** Main judicial organ of UN consists of 15 judges elected by general assembly and security council. Court decides disputes between countries, participants of states is voluntary. If states argue then it is obligatory to comply the decision. It gives opinion to states and other specialised agencies when asked. **Specialised agencies of UN** **ILO:** It was established on 11 April 1919. And associated with league of nations. The organization was dedicated to the work of improving working and living conditions of workers. Although, 1^st^ session of ILO was held at Washington in October 1919, the US did not become its member till 1934. During intervening periods of two WW(s), ILO conducted 1000s of studies and held 100s of conferences. The chief achievements of ILO during this period were: - Adoption of conventions of 8 hours a day, 48 hours a week, holidays with pay, sickness and old age insurance, freedom of association, forbidding night work for women and her employment in mines, forbidding employment of children under 15 years of age. In 1946, it became 1^st^ specialised agency to UN The main organization to which ILO works are: 1. International labour conference- ILO has general conference to which 4 delegates are deputed by each member state. These 4 delegates include 2 representatives of government, 1 of workers and 1 of employers except for government representative, the delegates vote as individuals. All conventions and recommendations are adopted by a 2/3^rd^ support of members. The chief function of international conference is to lay down the minimum international standards of working and living conditions. It is also responsible for elections of members of government body. The annual budget of organization is also approved by conference. 2. Governing body: is executive body of ILO. Consists of 56 members, elects its own chairman and vice-chairman for 1 year. Governing body holds 3 meeting in a year. Chief responsibilities of the governing body consists of: a. Selecting b. Appointment of directors c. Supervision of work d. Drafting proposals for budget e. Determine general policy The international labour office is the combination of secretariat, world information centre and publishing house. Labour office headed by director general appointed by the governing body. The office staff by experts from different countries of the world. ILO has headquarters at Geneva, branches at many countries including India. Chief responsibility of ILO office is to prepare documents and bring periodical publications. Objectives of ILO: - Stated in Article 2 of Philedelphia declaration 1. All human beings irrespective of race, caste, creed or sex have right to pursue material well-being and spiritual development in condition of freedom and dignity of economic and equal opportunity. 2. The attainment of conditions is which it is possible must constitute central aim of national and international policy. 3. All national and international policies in particularly of an economic and financial character should be judged in right and accepted in so far as they may be held to promote and not hinders the achievement of fundamental objectives. 4. It is a responsibility of the ILO to examine and consider all international economic and financial policies and measures in sight of this fundamental objective. Working methods of ILO: - - International labour Court - Technical cooperation - Information, education and research matters relating labour. International Labour Court from its start, ILO has set as a prime task, the defining of minimum international standards for certain aspects of working and social well-being and human rights. Standards setting thus remains one of the essential tasks of international labour conference. Although ILO can't enforce acceptance of its standards, it can and does watch over the way conventions are applied in countries which ratified them. The conventions of recommendations of ILO with broad spectrums of subjects from waking homes, sickness to abolition of forced labour. From social security of migrant workers to trade union rights. ILO technical cooperation activities are concerned out in such fields as organizations of employment, services, training and vocational rehabilitation, social security, productivity and management development cooperation, handicrafts and small industries. Technical cooperation efforts are carried out principally by sending experts to work on field projects. Standards settling and technical assistance both depend on research carried by international labour office. ILO is publishing house painting large periodicals, tax of labour laws, studies. **UNESCO** Existence -- 4 Nov, 1946. Constitution drafted by governments of UK and France was later adopted by 43 members of UN purpose of UNESCO has been expressed on Preamble to its constitution. 3 organs of UNESCO: 1. General conference 2. Executive board 3. Secretariat - Education - Natural sciences - Social and human sciences 1. Education is now recognised as fundamental human right as well as an indispensable factor in social and economical development. At present, at least half of the world population cannot read or write. UNESCO therefore, attaches top priority to imparting of education in children as well as adults. UNESCO holds worldwide campaign to obtain voluntary assistance in form of books, fellowships and study grants. UNESCO helps its members in education field by furnishing advice and expert assistance on matters like teachers training, school construction, school finance, preparation of curriculum and teaching materials. 2. Natural sciences help improve teachers in teaching basic sciences and research in maths, physics etc. it also makes efforts for science and technology in development. For this purpose, it has sponsored extensive cultural programs in the acts, literature and philosophy. UNESCO has also helped in programming of international exchange of knowledge. Criticism UNESCO dominated by western and governmental officials and said to be two centralised. - Its projects are too vast and ambitious. They are far too seminars many of which resulted in no actions. **WHO** Came into 7 April 1948, when 26 members states had ratified its constitutional government body of WHO is world health assembly in which all member states are representatives. Objective- attainment of best health to all people. - It helps countries to reinforce their health infrastructure, institutions, provision of essential drugs and supply other necessary equipment's. - It also promotes research required to develop appropriate technology related to all aspects of health including nutrition, maternal and child care, mental health, provision of safe drinking water. - It ensures worldwide campaign for insurance of worldwide vaccination of children. Problems: lack of funds, lack of coordination in regional offices. **IMF** Created under Brattenwoods agreement in December 27, 1945. Chief objective was described in agreement. Article 1, "1) to promote international monetary cooperation through permanent institutions which provides machinery for collaboration for international monetary problem. 2\) to facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade and to contribute thereby to promotion and maintenance to high level of income and development of productive resources of all members as primary objective of economic policy. 3\) to promote exchange severability, to maintain exchange among members and to avoid competitive exchange depreciation. 4\) to assist in establishment of multinational system of payment. 5\) to give confidence to member by making fund resources available to them, thus providing them with opportunity to covert in BOP without resorting to measure destructive national and international prosperity. Consists: - board of government, executive director, 8 managing director also other staff to assist it. The participants at Brattenwoods conference had assigned 3 main functions to fund: 1. It is to administer a coddle of conduct regarding exchange rate policies and restrictions on payments for current account transactions. 2. It is to provide member with financial resources to enable them to observe the code of conduct while they are collecting or avoiding payments in balances. 3. It is to provide forum in which members can consult with one another and collaborate on international monetary matters. The funds make financial resources available to members with payment problems under range of policies and facilities. In lending to its members fund is guided by 2 principles: - The pool of currencies at funds disposal exists for entire membership and therefore a member borrowing another member currency is expected to return it as soon as its payments problems have been solved so as not to limit other members access to same currency. - The fund releases any money from the pool then member must demonstrate how it intends to solve its payment problems so that it can repay the funds within its normal week payment period of 3-5 years. Under the fund the members have an obligation not to change its exchange rates by more than 10% from initial value without the permission of fund. The permission can be granted only by majority voting. Members of funds has duty to keep it fully informed of their domestic and international position as well as factors likely to affect it. **UNICEF** This organization was established in 1^st^ session of general assembly in 1946 from being regarded nearly as a supply agency, distributing milk and vitamin tablets to war effected children in post war Europe and China, it is now like a global guardian of children everywhere. It works along with NGOs, local communities and governments. The program now supports a range from sanitation, water, health, nutrition, education, environment to 'women' as 'mothers' and 'families' as 'nurseries'. More than programs, it assists with funds or with personal material or equipment. Over the years, UNICEF has worked out its priorities scientifically. It tries to balance between those children who have high risk for survival and those who have the high potential for development. By far, most important single achievement of UNICEF is adoption of convention on rights of child by general assembly in Nov. 1989. This is the most comprehensive mandate on status and rights of children and obligations of state and society towards them. **UNHCR** Root causes of refugee's displacement are invariably linked to conflict, persecution and denial of human rights, torture, killings, force displacements, related to ethnic and other differences have become common place of occurrences. These all are matter of concerns for UNHCR. UNHCR major challenges: General trend by some states to move away from a legal or rights-based approach to refugee protection. So increasingly refugees faced cross borders. Even if they granted asylum, they often faced rejection, hostility and prejudices. 1951 convention creating status of refugees, the main international instrument for protection of refugees is direct descendant of UN charter and universal declaration in its 1^st^ para-article 33 (1 of 1951) shall expel of return of refugee in any manner what soever to frontiers of territories. There life of freedom would be threatened on account of its race, religion, nationality of particular social group or political opinion. Article 14 of universal declaration of Human rights say 'everyone has right to seek and enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution'. A human rights approach to protection of refugees is about fundamental entitlement of all human beings to live in dignity. Detention of asylum seekers is another concern of UNHCR. UNHCR provides international protection and help to 22 million people to fled war or persecution. UNHCR most important function is international protection, try to ensure respect for refugees, basic human rights, and ensure that no one is returned involuntarily to a country where he or she has a reason to fear. Help during emergencies involving movements of refugees and providing help and shelters. **UNDP** UNDP perform functions like helping countries achieve sustainable development goals. The UNDP is the leading UN agency for international development and works in countries to achieve the sustainable development goals. Sustainable development goals are a set of goals that drive global development priorities. 1. Building Resilience: - It helps in building resilience. The UNDP works with countries to develop policies, leadership skills, build partnership abilities and institutional capabilities. 2. Publishing Reports: - The UNDP publishes human developments reports annualy which includes the human development index and gender equality index. The UNDP also publishes regional, national and local reports. 3. Advocate for Change: - UNDP advocates transformative change and collect countries resources to build a better life. 4. Protect Huma Rights: - UNDP encourages protection of human rights and empowerment of women. 5. Working with Global Governments: - UNDP works to meet the global analysis. **UNEP** It is the leading government authority of environment. Its mission is to inspire, inform the nations to improve their quality of life without compromising that of the future generations. Over 50 years, UNEP has worked with government, civil societies and private sectors. UN entertains to address humanities most pressing environment challenges. From restoring Ozone layer to protecting see and promoting green, inclusive society. UNEP driving transformational change by drilling down the root causes of the trifle planetary prices of climate change, major biodiversity loss and pollution. UNEP work is focused on helping countries transition to low carbon and resource deficient economics and strengthening environmental governments. It works on safeguarding ecosystems and provide evidence-based data to inform policy-based decision. Through cutting edge science, coordination and advocacy UNEP supports its 193 member states to achieve the sustainable development goals and live and harmony.