Topic 8: Environmental Disasters - Japanese Diseases PDF

TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS CHE 0315-1 | ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING o Expanded in 1943 to include zinc and JAPANESE DISEASES cadmium production, leading to severe...

TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS CHE 0315-1 | ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING o Expanded in 1943 to include zinc and JAPANESE DISEASES cadmium production, leading to severe contamination. kogai – “destruction of the public domain” o Waste management efforts (sludge ponds, neutralization processes) were inadequate. After World War II, environmental concerns o Heavy rainfall caused overflow of were largely ignored, with protests suppressed contaminated water into the Jinzu River. and affected communities left to deal with the Pollutant/Toxin: consequences on their own. o Cadmium was the primary toxin, highly toxic and accumulative in organisms. Ashio Copper Mine – Site of Japan's First o Contaminated river water polluted soil and Major Industrial Pollution Incident rice paddies. o Residents ingested harmful cadmium levels Shozo Tanaka – a politician and activist; led through contaminated rice. protests against the environmental damage, but the government was only focused on CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO ITAI-ITAI DISEASE industrial progress and largely ignored these concerns. 1. Host Factors: Human Vulnerabilities Demographics: ITAI-ITAI DISEASE o Most affected were women aged 35–65 in farming communities, especially in Fuchu. Also known a “Ouch-Ouch disease” o Disease peaked between 1935 and 1960, Severe health condition caused by industrial affecting women with multiple cadmium pollution, named after sufferers' pregnancies. cries, "It hurts, it hurts." Biological Factors: First identified in 1912 in the Jinzu River basin, o Pregnancy and breastfeeding depleted Toyama Prefecture, Japan. A river used for calcium, weakening bones and drinking and irrigation by local residents. increasing susceptibility. Cadmium waste from Kamioka Mine o Diets low in calcium and vitamin D contaminated the Jinzu River, affecting soil worsened osteomalacia and fractures. and rice. 2. Environmental Agent: Cadmium Contamination Chronic exposure caused kidney damage, bone Pollution Spread: deterioration, extreme pain, and fractures. o Water: Contaminated river water used Symptoms noticed in the 1930s-40s; officially for irrigation and drinking. studied in the 1950s. o Soil: Irrigation caused cadmium Hundreds affected, families faced economic accumulation in rice paddies. hardship. o Crops: Rice absorbed cadmium, Highlighted the need for better environmental becoming the primary exposure source. and public health protections. Clinical Evidence: o Hospital and mass screenings revealed CAUSES OF ITAI-ITAI DISEASE high cadmium levels in affected women, particularly in endemic areas like Root Cause: Kumano and Ohsawano. o Long-term environmental contamination 3. Interaction of Agent, Host, and Environment due to industrial activities at the Kamioka Contamination Chain: Mine. 1. Mine Discharge: Cadmium released into o Cadmium, a byproduct of zinc refining, was Jinzu River from zinc refining. discharged into the Jinzu River. 2. Environmental Pathways: Polluted Industrial Activities: water and soil contaminated rice crops. o Kamioka Mine initially focused on lead 3. Cadmium Ingestion: Decades of production (1874–1943) with limited consuming contaminated rice and pollution. water. TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS CHE 0315-1 | ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 4. Health Impact: Cadmium accumulates o Agano River: Mercury pollution from a in the kidneys, causing proteinuria factory in Niigata Prefecture. (protein loss in urine) and glycosuria First identified in 1956 in Minamata City, Japan. (glucose in urine). This damaged the A similar case occurred in 1965 in Niigata kidneys' ability to retain essential Prefecture, northern Japan. minerals like calcium. Neurological symptoms such as numbness and 5. The body’s inability to retain calcium, paralysis. combined with poor nutritional intake Severe consequences including death. and hormonal changes (especially after Devastated communities relying on marine pregnancies), led to severe calcium food chains for their livelihood. depletion. Over time, this calcium loss caused osteomalacia, a painful CAUSES OF MINAMATA DISEASE condition where bones become soft and prone to fractures. Minamata Bay Case: Since 1932, Chisso Corporation, a major NUMBER OF VICTIMS Japanese chemical company, operated a plant in Minamata City, where it produced Scale of the Crisis acetaldehyde. Worst global case of cadmium poisoning. This created methylmercury as a toxic by- Over 7,000 residents in the Jinzu River delta product. Methylmercury was discarded were affected. untreated into Minamata Bay, contaminating Officially recognized cases since 1962: the seafood. o 223 confirmed cases. Main food source (seafood) poisoned the local o 150 suspected cases identified population. through screenings and hospital Thousands suffered from mercury poisoning records. due to contaminated fish and shellfish Fatalities consumption. Approximately 56 deaths documented by Chisso denied responsibility for years, Toyama Prefecture. continuing to release toxic waste. Predominantly affected areas: Fuchu- machi, Ohsawano, Yatsuo, and Toyama City. Timeline of Contamination (Minamata Bay): Methodology for determining fatalities unclear. 1932: Chisso began acetaldehyde production in Survival Rate and Long-Term Impact Minamata, generating methylmercury by- Early diagnosis and medical intervention product. improved survival chances. 1950s: Early signs in animals, such as "dancing Chronic health issues for survivors: renal cats" where cats were seen moving in failure, bone deformation, and reduced disoriented ways, with some even falling into quality of life. the sea Many victims suffered for decades before 1956: First official reports of Minamata disease succumbing to the disease, with no in two children with neurological symptoms definitive cure available. such as tremors and difficulty walking. By August, multiple deaths occurred, linked to MINAMATA DISEASE mercury-contaminated seafood. 1968: Japanese government officially A serious neurological disorder caused by recognized methylmercury contamination as Mercury poisoning due to consumption of the cause of Minamata disease. Chisso seafood contaminated with methylmercury. Corporation's role in the environmental Source of Contamination: disaster was confirmed. o Minamata Bay: Mercury-laden wastewater released by a chemical factory. Niigata Case: TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS CHE 0315-1 | ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Showa Denko, a chemical company in Niigata o The connection to mercury poisoning took Prefecture, released untreated wastewater years to identify. containing methylmercury from acetaldehyde Children: production into the Agano River. o Exposed in utero through their mothers' Mercury poisoning spread through consumption of contaminated seafood. contaminated fish in the Agano River. o Suffered more severe symptoms, including Residents exhibited neurological symptoms motor and cognitive disabilities, due to similar to the Minamata Bay case. their developing nervous systems. Unborn Babies (Congenital Cases): Timeline of Contamination (Niigata Case: Agano o Known as Fetal Minamata Disease, River): resembling cerebral palsy. o Methylmercury crossed the placenta, 1965: Symptoms of mercury poisoning similar causing severe congenital neurological to Minamata disease appeared in the Agano damage. River basin; strange animal behavior and o Affected children experienced profound neurological disorders of local residents were cognitive and physical disabilities. observed. 1968: Experts confirmed that Showa Denko’s NUMBERS OF AFFECTED IN BOTH REGIONS methylmercury contamination caused the poisoning through affected seafood. Minamata Bay, Kumamoto Prefecture (1956): 1970s: Research on the incident advanced o 52 cases identified by the end of 1956. understanding of Minamata disease and o 17 deaths recorded. industrial pollution impacts. Agano River Basin, Niigata Prefecture (1965): HEALTH IMPACTS OF MINAMATA DISEASE o 26 cases identified by July 1965. o 5 deaths recorded. Methylmercury poisoning, primarily affecting the nervous system, including the brain and spinal Underdiagnosis: cord, through consumption of contaminated o The actual number of affected individuals seafood. is likely higher due to undiagnosed subclinical or mild cases from consuming Common Symptoms: contaminated fish. Ataxia (loss of balance and coordination) and RESOLUTION & AFTERMATH OF MINAMATA Dysarthria (speech disturbances). Constriction of visual field (impaired Government Response: peripheral vision). o Initial response was slow; the cause was Disturbance of sensation (loss of touch, pain, officially acknowledged only in 1968. and temperature sensation). o Survivors received financial support and Muscle weakness and cramps. medical care, but many had to fight for Hearing disturbances (reduced ability to hear). recognition and compensation. Movement disorders (difficulty in voluntary Legal Battles and Compensation: muscle control). o Early lawsuits began in the 1970s; first victory in 1973 for 121 patients. VICTIM GROUPS OF MINAMATA DISEASE o Japan's Supreme Court later eased victim recognition, enabling more claims. Environmental Cleanup: Adults: o 1977-1997: Removal of 1.5 million cubic o Prolonged exposure to contaminated meters of mercury-contaminated sludge seafood caused a full range of neurological from Minamata Bay. symptoms. o The reclaimed land was converted into o Many faced permanent disability or death. parks, symbolizing recovery. TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS CHE 0315-1 | ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Policy Changes: SO2 concentrations in areas like Isozu were 16 o Stricter waste control laws were enacted. times higher than later environmental o The Minamata Convention on Mercury standards, contributing to severe health effects. (2013) was established to address global mercury pollution. HEALTH IMPACTS OF YOKKAICHI ASTHMA YOKKAICHI ASTHMA Symptoms Experienced by Victims: Severe Asthma Attacks: Characterized by Yokkaichi asthma – a severe public health breathlessness, wheezing, and chest tightness crisis in Japan during the 1960s–1970s, caused due to airway constriction. by air pollution from petrochemical industries Chronic Bronchitis: Persistent coughing, in Yokkaichi, Mie Prefecture. excessive mucus production, and inflammation Began with rapid industrialization in the late of the bronchial tubes. 1950s; first petrochemical complex started in Pulmonary Emphysema: Damage to the air 1959 sacs in the lungs, causing shortness of breath and difficulty exhaling. CAUSES OF YOKKAICHI ASTHMA NUMBER OF VICTIMS OF YOKKAICHI ASTHMA Industrial Growth Timeline: By 1965, about 8% of the population in the 1941: The Japanese Navy established the Fueling Isozu district was diagnosed with pollution- Depot (No. 2) in Yokkaichi, laying the related illnesses. foundation for industrial development. Thousands more were likely affected but 1955: The Ministry of International Trade and remained undiagnosed due to limited medical Industry (MITI) transferred the depot to the resources. private sector under the Petrochemical Growth By December 1991, 97,276 victims nationwide, Action Plan, starting Yokkaichi's including 809 from Yokkaichi, were eligible for industrialization. compensation under the government’s 1959: The first petrochemical complex was compensation schemes. constructed in the Shiohama area, marking Yokkaichi as a petrochemical hub. CHEMICAL AND OIL SPILL DISASTERS 1963: The second petrochemical complex in Umaokoshi increased output and pollution. Chemical and oil spill disasters occur when 1972: The third petrochemical complex in hazardous substances are released into the Kasumi led to peak industrial pollution. environment, often due to human error or equipment failure. These events can severely Pollutants/Toxins: impact ecosystems, wildlife, human health, and economies. Oil spills harm marine life, coral reefs, Sulfur Dioxide (SO2): The primary pollutant and fisheries, while chemical leaks poison air, soil, from burning high-sulfur fuels, leading to and water, causing long-term health issues. In respiratory issues. response, regulations like the Oil Pollution Act, Particulate Matter (PM): Small particles Superfund Act, and Basel Convention were created aggravating respiratory conditions. to improve safety, prevent future incidents, and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx): Emitted during hold polluters accountable, emphasizing the need combustion, these gases caused additional for global environmental protection. respiratory irritation and smog formation. Hydrocarbons: Released from chemical EXXON-VALDEZ OIL SPILL production, further worsening air quality. Exxon Corporation (now ExxonMobil after Impact on Air Quality: merging with Mobil in 1999) was a major oil company at the time. TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS CHE 0315-1 | ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Exxon Valdez - Owned by Exxon, the massive for an extended period, causing ongoing oil tanker transported crude oil from the Trans- damage to marine life and ecosystems. Alaska Pipeline Terminal in Valdez, Alaska, to California. CLEAN UP OF EXXON-VALDEZ OIL SPILL March 24, 1989 – date of spill Exxon Valdez was loaded with 53 million Large-scale, multi-agency operation involving gallons of Alaska North Slope crude oil, a Exxon, federal, state, and local agencies. medium-weight crude with high sulfur content Thousands of workers, oil spill response teams, that thickens in cold environments. and various vessels, helicopters, and aircraft Prince William Sound - an ecologically rich mobilized. Only less than 10% of the spilled oil was area with diverse marine life (salmon, sea physically removed from the environment. otters, seals, seabirds). Captain Joseph Hazelwood - with a history of Primary Cleanup Methods: alcohol abuse, deviated from the normal shipping lanes to avoid icebergs and left the 1. Skimming - Skimmers were deployed to bridge. remove oil from the water's surface. These Third Mate Gregory Cousins – crew member, devices either scooped or suctioned the oil into unlicensed to navigate through Prince William storage tanks. However, this method was Sound, left in charge of the ship's navigation as limited in effectiveness due to rough seas and it approached the hazardous waters around cold temperatures, which made it difficult to Bligh Reef. Crew fatigue and operate the equipment. miscommunication compounded the situation. 2. Booming - Floating barriers (booms) At 12:04 AM, the Exxon Valdez struck Bligh contained the oil and prevented it from Reef, rupturing eight of the eleven cargo tanks. spreading to sensitive areas. Less effective in Over 10.8 million gallons of oil spilled into the rough weather, allowing oil to slip past or waters, causing extensive environmental become trapped under booms. damage. 3. In-Situ Burning - Controlled burning of oil to U.S. Coast Guard, responsible for monitoring quickly remove large amounts from the water’s ship traffic in Prince William Sound, reduced surface. Limited use due to safety concerns, radar monitoring due to budget cuts, leaving wildlife habitats, and weather conditions. key areas unmonitored. Lack of radar oversight 4. Dispersal - Chemical dispersants were applied prevented early detection of the ship's deviation to break the oil into smaller droplets, and possible intervention. promoting faster biodegradation. Reduced effectiveness in cold, rough waters and PROPERTIES OF ANS CRUDE OIL concerns about the environmental impact of dispersants. thick, sticky, and difficult to clean up due to its 5. Bioremediation - Natural microorganisms high viscosity and sulfur content. (bacteria) used to break down oil, primarily in classified as sour crude, meaning it contains a shorelines and trapped areas. Effective but high amount of sulfur, making it toxic and slow, unable to fully eliminate the oil. hazardous to marine life and the environment. 6. Manual Removal - Workers physically Contains harmful chemicals: benzene, toluene, removed oil using shovels, rakes, and pressure xylene, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons washers in accessible areas. Labor-intensive (PAHs). but practical in areas where other methods These substances are toxic to marine were ineffective. organisms (e.g., fish, shellfish) and can cause 7. Vacuuming - Vacuum trucks removed oil from severe health issues. Benzene is a carcinogen shorelines and difficult-to-reach areas. that can bioaccumulate in the food chain, Limited by the size of the area and amount of posing risks to humans consuming oil present. contaminated seafood. 8. Sediment Removal - Removal of contaminated ANS crude is persistent in cold water, meaning sediments from the seafloor. Challenging due it does not biodegrade as quickly as lighter to water depth and rough conditions. crudes. The oil remained in the environment TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS CHE 0315-1 | ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Much of the oil remained in the environment for PREVENTION MEASURES years, especially in harder-to-reach areas. Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90): Passed HEALTH IMPACTS OF EXXON-VALDEZ OIL SPILL after the Exxon Valdez spill to improve spill prevention, response, and cleanup. Thousands of workers participated in the In 1991, Exxon agreed to a $1 billion settlement cleanup, many without proper training or covering civil and criminal penalties. However, protective gear, leading to acute health a class-action lawsuit led to a reduced $507.5 problems like headaches, nausea, respiratory million punitive damages award by the U.S. irritation, and skin conditions such as Supreme Court in 2008, which many dermatitis. Prolonged exposure to toxic considered insufficient. substances, like benzene and toluene, caused OPA 90 established strict liability for oil more severe issues such as chronic respiratory companies, holding them financially problems, neurological symptoms, and an responsible for cleanup costs, wildlife damage, increased risk of cancers, particularly and economic losses, without a cap for natural leukemia. resource and economic damage. Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund - Funded by a tax In addition to physical health effects, the on crude oil, this fund provides up to $1 billion disaster had significant mental health impacts, for spill response when the responsible party is with many affected individuals experiencing unknown or unable to pay. stress, anxiety, and depression due to OPA 90 mandates detailed spill response plans, environmental destruction and impacts on including spill containment strategies and their livelihoods. emergency protocols for oil companies, which must be regularly updated. Limited health monitoring during the cleanup Double-Hull Tankers: To reduce spill risk, OPA made it difficult to track the long-term effects. 90 required all tankers in U.S. waters to be However, subsequent oil spills, like Deepwater double-hulled by 2015, a key measure to Horizon, led to more comprehensive studies, prevent leaks from collisions or groundings. improving health monitoring in future spill Tanker and Facility Inspections: The law responses. Many workers continued to report enhanced Coast Guard inspections of oil chronic health issues, including respiratory tankers, drilling platforms, and facilities to problems, skin conditions, and neurological ensure spill prevention measures are in place. issues, even years after the disaster. Penalties for Non-Compliance: OPA 90 imposes fines for violations, such as The presence of Polycyclic Aromatic inadequate spill equipment or failure to report Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the crude oil spills, with fines up to $1,000 per barrel of oil contributed to long-lasting damage to human spilled. health, especially with prolonged exposure. Natural Resource Damage Assessment The full extent of the health impacts remains (NRDA): The law established a process to unclear due to the lack of comprehensive assess environmental damage and guide tracking and monitoring of those involved. restoration efforts and compensation for affected resources. Over three decades later, remnants of oil Training and Response Resources: OPA 90 continue to be found in certain areas of Prince provided funding for specialized training William Sound, and some species have shown programs to enhance the preparedness of signs of recovery, while others, like Pacific personnel involved in spill response. herring, remain severely impacted. The spill's effects on marine life and ecosystems are still LOVE CANAL being monitored, and while restoration efforts continue, full recovery is unlikely in the short HISTORICAL CONTEXT AND DEVELOPMENT term. TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS CHE 0315-1 | ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING In the late 19th century, William T. Love Helped establish the Comprehensive envisioned a hydroelectric-powered industrial Environmental Response, Compensation, and community, beginning the construction of Liability Act (CERCLA) commonly known as Love Canal to connect the Niagara River and Superfund in 1980. Erie Canal. Center for Health, Environment, and Justice Due to financial issues and the rise of AC (CHEJ) - Lois Gibbs founded this organization, technology, the project was abandoned by the which continues to advocate for environmental 1920s. justice today. In the early 1940s (specifically between 1942 and 1953), Hooker Chemical Company (later HEALTH IMPACTS part of Occidental Petroleum) used the canal as a dumping ground for 22,000 tons of Neurological Issues: Headaches, dizziness, and hazardous chemicals like benzene, PCBs memory loss. (polychlorinated biphenyls), dioxins, and Respiratory Problems: Chronic cough and other dangerous compounds buried under a asthma-like symptoms. thin dirt layer. Reproductive Disorders: Increased 1953: Hooker sold the land to the Niagara Falls miscarriages and stillbirths. School Board for $1. The deed explicitly Congenital Disabilities: Skeletal abnormalities warned about the buried toxic waste, yet the and developmental delays in children. area was soon developed into a residential Chronic Diseases: Liver damage, kidney failure, neighborhood and cancers, especially leukemia and blood- Despite the warning, the area was developed related cancers. into a residential neighborhood, with a school built directly on the landfill. NUMBER OF VICTIMS 1970s: By this time, the buried chemicals 56% of children born to families in Love Canal began to cause significant health and had birth defects (initial surveys in the late environmental issues. 1970s). Over 800 families were evacuated, with many EMERGENCE OF THE CRISIS others impacted by contamination. Hundreds of cases of cancer and chronic 1970s: Residents reported severe health and illnesses linked to chemical exposure. environmental issues due to toxic chemicals leaching into soil and groundwater. GOVERNMENT RESPONSE Issues included In 1978, President Jimmy Carter declared Love o miscarriages, Canal a federal disaster area, enabling o birth defects, resources for evacuation and cleanup. o cancer, leukemia, EPA investigated and found 200+ hazardous o liver and kidney damage, and chemicals had contaminated the area, leading o neurological disorders. cleanup efforts. In 1978, The Environmental Protection Agency The disaster cost over $250 million for (EPA) declared the Love Canal site a national evacuation, compensation, and cleanup. emergency and the neighborhood It led to the creation of the Superfund program uninhabitable. (CERCLA, 1980), providing funds for cleanup Over 800 families were evacuated from the and holding polluters accountable. contaminated area. Lois Gibbs - Influential environmental activist LEGAL ACTIONS who became a leader in the fight against toxic Lawsuits were filed against Hooker Chemical pollution. Found that her children's school was (Occidental Petroleum) for negligence. The built on a hazardous waste site in Love Canal. company paid $129 million in a settlement. In 1978, she led the Love Canal Homeowners Additional lawsuits were filed against the City Association, organizing the community to of Niagara Falls and the Niagara Falls School demand relocation and government action. TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS CHE 0315-1 | ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Board for allowing development on 1. Reduce Waste: Minimize waste generation contaminated land. and encourage resource conservation. 2. Protect Human Health and the COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE, Environment: Prevent harm from improper COMPENSATION, AND LIABILITY ACT (CERCLA) waste disposal. 3. Establish a Regulatory Framework: Set Enacted in 1980 and commonly known as the standards for waste generation, Superfund law, CERCLA was influenced by the transportation, treatment, storage, and Love Canal disaster. disposal. It provides a legal framework for addressing 4. Promote Resource Recovery: Encourage abandoned hazardous waste sites and gives the the safe recovery and reuse of valuable EPA the authority to clean up polluted sites and materials from waste. hold responsible parties accountable. Key Provisions: Purpose and Objectives: 1. Subtitle C: Hazardous Waste Management: 1. Clean Up Contaminated Sites: Targeting sites o Cradle-to-grave system for hazardous that pose risks to public health and the waste, the waste must be tracked and environment. managed responsibly from its generation to 2. Hold Responsible Parties Accountable: its ultimate disposal Including companies and landowners o Requires permits and compliance from responsible for improper waste disposal. facilities handling hazardous waste. 3. Prioritize Hazardous Sites: Focus on the most o Identification of hazardous waste and strict dangerous sites, designated as Superfund sites. handling standards. 4. Prevent Further Contamination: By ensuring o Contingency plans for emergencies that pollutants are removed, contained, or involving hazardous waste. remediated. 2. Subtitle D: Solid Waste Management: o Focuses on non-hazardous solid waste (e.g., Key Provisions: municipal garbage). 1. Identification and Listing of Hazardous Sites: o Encourages states to develop EPA creates the National Priorities List (NPL) comprehensive solid waste management to prioritize sites for cleanup. plans. 2. Liability: Polluters, including manufacturers, o Promotes the development of sanitary site owners, and contributors, are financially landfills with design standards to prevent responsible for cleanup. environmental issues like groundwater 3. Cleanup Standards: Framework for evaluating contamination and air pollution. risks and determining appropriate cleanup methods (removal, containment, or BHOPAL INCIDENT treatment). 4. Fund for Emergency Cleanups: The Hazardous December 2-3, 1984, (between midnight and Substance Superfund allows EPA to fund 1:00AM) at the Union Carbide India Limited cleanup efforts before identifying responsible (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya parties. Pradesh, India The UCIL plant was producing pesticides such RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND RECOVERY ACT as Sevin, which required methyl isocyanate as (RCRA) a key intermediate chemical. The plant stored Enacted in 1976, RCRA governs the disposal of large quantities of MIC to reduce costs but solid and hazardous waste to protect human lacked the proper safeguards to handle such health and the environment. volatile substances. Introduced in response to concerns about 40 tons of Methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas leak waste management practices, including occurred when water entered a storage tank disasters like Love Canal. containing MIC, triggering a violent exothermic reaction. Purpose and Objectives: TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS CHE 0315-1 | ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING MIC is a highly toxic chemical used in pesticide In 1989, a settlement of $470 million was production, exposure to which can cause reached with Union Carbide. severe health issues or death, even in small The settlement was widely criticized as amounts. insufficient, failing to address the scale of the This caused a rapid increase in pressure and tragedy and long-term suffering of the victims. temperature, leading to the rupture of the tank The 1989 settlement was criticized as and release of toxic gas. inadequate, and survivors continue to seek The gas spread rapidly, blanketing densely justice. Attempts to hold Union Carbide populated areas, especially slums and executives, including CEO Warren Anderson, residential neighborhoods, just a few hundred accountable failed, as Anderson was declared meters from the plant. an absconder but never extradited. The incident occurred at night, while the majority of the population was asleep, giving ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION ACT (1986) them little time to react. Immediate Exposure: Over 500,000 people Introduced in response to the Bhopal disaster were exposed to MIC gas. to address industrial pollution and hazardous Immediate Death Toll: Estimated between substance accidents. 3,000 to 8,000 within the first few days. Some Emphasized a centralized approach to estimates suggest a higher death toll due to environmental governance. delayed effects. Long-term Death Toll: The death toll rose to Key Provisions: over 20,000 in the following years due to prolonged exposure to the chemicals. Centralized Environmental Authority: The Act Chronic Health Issues: Survivors suffer from gave the government the power to take respiratory problems, neurological measures to protect and improve the impairments, eye damage, birth defects, and environment, including issuing directions and cancers. regulations to control pollution. Generational Impacts: Children born to Control of Hazardous Substances: It mandated exposed parents have higher rates of birth stricter control over industries that deal with defects, mental impairments, and toxic chemicals like MIC, with regulations on developmental delays. their storage, handling, and disposal. Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA): It HEALTH IMPACTS made Environmental Impact Assessments Coughing, choking, and intense chest pain. mandatory for large-scale industrial projects, Respiratory distress, difficulty breathing, and ensuring that potential risks were considered suffocation. before approval. Burning sensations in the eyes, leading to Emergency Preparedness: The Act called for temporary or permanent blindness. better preparedness for industrial accidents Vomiting, severe neurological symptoms, and and greater transparency in how industries seizures. manage risks. GOVERNMENT RESPONSE & LEGAL ACTIONS FACTORIES ACT (1987)-Amendments The government's reaction was slow and While the Factories Act (1948) was already in inadequate, delaying emergency medical care place, the 1987 amendments made significant and evacuation efforts. improvements, largely in response to Bhopal. Many victims were left without timely assistance during the critical aftermath of the Key provisions: disaster. Enhanced Safety Standards: The Act The Indian government took control of legal introduced stricter safety standards for proceedings on behalf of the victims. industries, including the need for safety drills, protective equipment, and regular inspections. TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS CHE 0315-1 | ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Health and Welfare: It emphasized the health demands for stricter penalties and greater and welfare of workers, particularly those corporate accountability. exposed to chemicals, ensuring regular health 2. Environment Protection Rules (2000) – an screenings and better medical care for extension of the EPA, strengthened after employees. Bhopal, these rules tightened controls on Training: The amendments introduced hazardous industries, emphasizing waste mandatory safety training for workers disposal, air and water quality monitoring, and handling hazardous materials and increased mandatory toxic emissions reporting. requirements for emergency response plans in factories. INTERNATIONAL REFORMS AND CONVENTIONS Chemical Weapons Convention (1993) PUBLIC LIABILITY INSURANCE ACT (1991) Though not directly linked to Bhopal, this convention emphasized chemical safety and Public Liability Insurance Act (1991) was accountability, influencing global safety norms introduced to ensure that victims of industrial for handling toxic chemicals. accidents, particularly those involving hazardous The International Labour Organization (ILO) substances, could receive compensation quickly Convention on Chemical Safety and fairly. Bhopal spurred reforms under the ILO, promoting safer workplaces, worker health Key provisions: protections, and stricter chemical Mandatory Insurance: The Act made it management in industries. compulsory for companies handling hazardous United Nations Environment Programme chemicals to have insurance policies that (UNEP) Initiatives would cover liabilities in case of accidents. Bhopal highlighted the need for global Faster Compensation: The Act established a protocols, leading UNEP to push for stricter mechanism for faster compensation through a accountability and regulation of hazardous Claims Commissioner, bypassing the need for chemical leaks worldwide. long legal battles. KOKO BEACH INCIDENT CHEMICAL ACCIDENTS (EMERGENCY PLANNING, PREPAREDNESS, AND RESPONSE) RULES (1996) In 1988, over 2,000 barrels of hazardous industrial waste were illegally exported from In the aftermath of Bhopal, the Indian government Italy to Koko, Nigeria, a small fishing introduced these rules to ensure that industries community in Delta State. handling hazardous chemicals had the proper The waste, which included polychlorinated emergency preparedness in place. byphenyls (PCBs), dioxins, and heavy metals, was falsely labeled as "building materials" or Key provisions: “fertilizer”. Emergency Response Plans: The rules required The waste was stored improperly, leading to industries to create emergency response plans severe environmental contamination and and ensure their workers were trained to health risks. handle chemical leaks and other accidents. Sunday Nana – owner of a vacant lot in Koko Community Awareness: Companies were also who allowed foreign importers to dump 3,800 required to inform local communities about the tons of toxic waste on his land (1987-1988) in risks and to involve them in emergency exchange for $100 per month, unaware of the planning. full dangers. Nana's involvement became central to the investigation of the illegal LAWS STRENGTHENED DUE TO BHOPAL dumping. Pollutants/Toxins: 1. Indian Penal Code (IPC) - The Bhopal disaster o Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): Known exposed gaps in the IPC's provisions for carcinogens that cause immune addressing industrial negligence, prompting TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS CHE 0315-1 | ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING suppression, liver damage, and o Included provisions for regulating developmental issues. hazardous substances and improving waste o Dioxins: Toxic by-products linked to management. reproductive problems, hormonal 2. Hazardous Waste (Regulation of Import and disruption, and immune system Export) Act (1991) suppression. o Regulated the import of hazardous waste o Heavy metals: Lead, mercury, and into Nigeria, requiring prior approval from cadmium, all of which are harmful to authorities. human health and the environment, o Mandated labeling, classification, and especially when they contaminate water documentation of hazardous materials. sources and agricultural land. o Established penalties for illegal dumping, providing legal tools to prevent future HEALTH IMPACTS incidents. 3. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Act Short-term exposure: (1992) Severe skin burns and irritation o Required environmental impact Respiratory difficulties, including assessments for certain industrial and coughing, shortness of breath, and chest development projects. pain o Aimed to assess and mitigate potential Neurological symptoms such as dizziness, environmental risks before project headaches, and memory loss approval. 4. National Oil Spill Detection and Response Long-term exposure: Agency (NOSDRA) Act (2006) o Established NOSDRA to monitor and respond to oil spills and environmental Cancer: Long-term exposure to PCBs and disasters. dioxins increases the risk of liver, lung, and o Focused on preventing contamination from skin cancers. Many of those exposed in the oil industry and ensuring adherence to 1988 may develop cancers later in life. environmental protection practices. Endocrine and Reproductive Disorders: Exposure to dioxins and PCBs caused long- lasting hormonal disruptions, which led to NUCLEAR DISASTERS infertility, miscarriages, and other reproductive health issues. Nuclear Power Overview: Chronic Respiratory Problems: Persistent o Energy produced through nuclear fission exposure to toxic substances resulted in (splitting atomic nuclei) and, potentially, long-term conditions like chronic fusion in the future. obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and o Fission of uranium-235 or plutonium-239 asthma. generates heat, used to produce steam and Neurological Disorders: Long-term effects drive turbines for electricity. included memory loss, cognitive o Nuclear power contributes nearly 15% of impairments, and increased rates of mood global electricity. disorders such as anxiety and depression. Development and Use: o Early nuclear plants (1960s) were small- NATIONAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS IN scale demonstration facilities. RESPONSE TO THE KOKO BEACH INCIDENT o By the 1990s, nuclear energy peaked at 17% of global electricity but has since declined due to the rise of coal and natural gas. 1. National Policy on the Environment (1989) o Still crucial in countries like the U.S., o Nigeria's first comprehensive France, and China, where nuclear capacity environmental governance framework. expansion projects are underway. o Aimed to ensure sustainable resource use and integrate environmental Nuclear Plant Operations: o A typical plant generates about one considerations into national development. gigawatt (GW) of electricity, operating at TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS CHE 0315-1 | ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 90% capacity, producing eight terawatt- considered the most severe incident in U.S. hours annually. commercial nuclear power history and is o Most reactors worldwide are Pressurized classified as a Level 5 event on the Water Reactors (PWRs) and Boiling Water International Nuclear Event Scale. Reactors (BWRs) known as Light Water Reactors (LWRs), making up over 80% of CAUSES OF THE ACCIDENT global nuclear plants. Mechanical Failures: INTERNATIONAL NUCLEAR EVENT SCALE o Malfunctioning pilot-operated relief valve (PORV) caused loss of coolant, releasing The International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) is a radioactive water and steam. tool developed by the International Atomic Energy o Control room indicators failed to show the Agency (IAEA) to communicate the severity of valve was open, leaving operators unaware nuclear and radiological events. of coolant loss. Design Flaws: Levels of INES: o Ambiguous control panel indicators made it difficult for operators to assess system Levels 1 - 3: Incidents status. o Level 1: Anomaly - A minor problem with o Inadequate backup systems and alarms safety systems but no failed to prevent or mitigate the o significant risk. malfunction. o Level 2: Incident - Exposure of workers or Human Errors: minor contamination exceeding legal Key personnel involved in the crisis: limits. o Craig Faust & Edward Frederick: Control o Level 3: Serious Incident - Severe exposure room operators. They were responsible for or contamination but no widespread health monitoring and adjusting the plant’s effects. critical systems. They decided to pressurize Levels 4 - 7: Accidents the relief valve based on their o Level 4: Accident with Local Consequences - interpretation of reactor conditions, which Limited release of radioactive materials, was a key mistake that worsened the crisis. possibly requiring countermeasures like evacuation near the site. o William Zewe: Shift Supervisor for both o Level 5: Accident with Wider Consequences - Units 1 and 2. Zewe was focused on Release of radioactive materials likely to paperwork but also played a supervisory result in significant health or role in addressing operational issues. He environmental effects (e.g., Three Mile was not directly involved in handling the Island). immediate emergency but had a broader o Level 6: Serious Accident - Significant responsibility for the plant’s operations. radioactive releases requiring full- scale emergency responses. o Fred Scheimann: Shift Foreman. He worked o Level 7: Major Accident - Large-scale with auxiliary operators Don Miller and radioactive releases with widespread health Harold Farst to clear a resin plug in the No. and environmental impacts (e.g., 7 condensate polisher, an essential Chernobyl, Fukushima). component for water flow. This task helped to prevent further complications in the THREE MILE ISLAND ACCIDENT cooling system. Occurred on March 28, 1979, at Three Mile o Don Miller and Harold Farst: Auxiliary Island Nuclear Generating Station in operators. They assisted Fred Scheimann in Pennsylvania. "fluffing" the resin plug using compressed A partial meltdown of the Unit 2 reactor (TMI- air, which was necessary to restore proper 2) released radioactive gases and iodine. functioning of the condensate polisher and maintain feedwater quality. TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS CHE 0315-1 | ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING Triggered by a sudden power drop during a o Richard Loeschke: Senior reactor operator. safety test in Reactor No. 4, leading to a violent Loeschke was involved in decisions related explosion and fire. to the reactor coolant system, including the Massive amounts of radioactive materials were reduction of coolant flow, which released into the atmosphere. inadvertently exacerbated the problem. His The disaster is classified as the worst nuclear decision to reduce flow was based on a disaster in history, rated Level 7 on the misunderstanding of the reactor's International Nuclear Event Scale (highest condition. severity). Widespread contamination across Europe, o Harold Denton: NRC representative and making it one of the costliest environmental expert. Denton played a critical role as a disasters. liaison between TMI and the Nuclear Estimated financial impact of $700 billion USD. Regulatory Commission during the incident. He helped to manage CAUSES OF THE DISASTER communication between the plant and the NRC, providing guidance on the unfolding Flawed Reactor Design: crisis. o The RBMK-1000 reactor had critical safety weaknesses, including a positive IMMEDIATE IMPACTS void coefficient, making it unstable at low power levels. Release of Radioactive Materials: o The reactor's control rods had graphite 1. Noble Gases: tips, which initially increased reactivity o Released: 480 PBq (13 MCi). when inserted, worsening the power o Includes Xenon and Krypton. surge. o Considered relatively harmless due Operator Error: to low reactivity and minimal o Anatoly Dyatlov: Shift supervisor, absorption by the body. responsible for disabling safety o Quickly dispersed into the systems, including the automatic atmosphere; health impact was shutdown mechanism, and authorizing minimal due to low toxicity. unsafe procedures. 2. Iodine-131: o Viktor Bryukhanov: Plant director, o Released: 481–629 GBq (13.0–17.0 allowed unsafe conditions to persist, Ci). although not directly involved in the o Short half-life of about 8 days, test. reducing long-term environmental o Leonid Toptunov: Senior reactor concern. operator, failed to shut down the o Poses a health risk if inhaled or reactor due to miscommunication, lack ingested, as it accumulates in the of training, and operational errors. thyroid gland. o Boris Stolyarchuk: Reactor control o Released in small amounts, and engineer, failed to intervene despite exposure levels were below harmful safety protocol violations. thresholds for public health. Sudden Power Surge: o Low power operation combined with CHERNOBYL DISASTER disabled safety systems caused an uncontrolled power surge. The Chernobyl disaster occurred on April 26, o This surge led to overheating and 1986, at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant rupturing of the reactor's fuel near Pripyat, northern Ukraine, then part of assemblies. the Soviet Union. Steam Explosion and Graphite Fire: o The power surge caused a steam explosion, which blew off the reactor's roof. TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS CHE 0315-1 | ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING o The explosion exposed the reactor core Cesium-137: 0.085 EBq, contributed to and ignited a graphite fire, releasing long-term contamination with a half-life large amounts of radioactive material. of 30 years. Lack of Safety Culture: Strontium-90: 0.010 EBq, poses bone o The Soviet nuclear industry lacked a marrow and leukemia risks with a half-life strong safety culture, with poor of 29 years. communication, inadequate training, Plutonium-241: 0.003 EBq, decays into and insufficient regulatory oversight. Americium-241, posing long-term o Design flaws were not properly environmental threats due to its long half- addressed, and operators were not fully life. informed about reactor risks. Fire and Explosion: The explosion was followed by a reactor fire IMMEDIATE IMPACTS that burned for 10 days, releasing more radioactive material. Human Casualties: Firefighters were exposed to lethal Immediate Deaths: radiation levels while trying to extinguish o Valery Khodemchuk: Reactor the fire without adequate protective gear. operator, killed instantly by the Immediate Evacuations: explosion, body never recovered. Pripyat, home to about 49,000 residents, o Vladimir Shashenok: Test was evacuated 36 hours after the disaster. supervisor, died shortly after the A 30-kilometer exclusion zone was explosion from severe injuries. established, forcing over 115,000 people to Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS) Deaths: leave their homes. o 28 emergency responders, plant Environmental Contamination: operators, and engineers died from Large areas in Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia ARS after exposure to high radiation were heavily contaminated. while trying to contain the disaster. The surrounding environment, including o Notable ARS victims: forests and rivers, was affected, causing § Leonid Toptunov: Senior wildlife death and long-term ecological reactor control engineer. damage. § Alexander Akimov: Shift leader of Reactor 4. Chernobyl Exclusion Zone - A 30-kilometer radius § Vasily Ignatenko: around the plant, remains largely off-limits, Firefighter, widely known though it has become a refuge for wildlife. for his suffering and death. Long-Term Fatalities: FUKUSHIMA-DAIICHI NUCLEAR POWER PLANT o Thousands died from radiation- related illnesses (e.g., thyroid The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster cancer, leukemia). occurred on March 11, 2011, at the Fukushima o UNSCEAR estimates around 4,000 Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Ōkuma, eventual deaths from long-term Fukushima, Japan. health effects among the most Triggered by a 9.0-magnitude earthquake off exposed populations. the coast of Japan, followed by a massive Indirect and Unquantified Deaths: tsunami. o Psychological toll, forced The tsunami disabled the plant’s power supply displacement, and increased and cooling systems, compromising the mortality from suicide, alcoholism, containment of reactors 1, 2, and 3, leading to and related factors in affected meltdowns and the release of large amounts of populations. radioactive materials into the atmosphere. Radiation Release: The plant was operated by Tokyo Electric Iodine-131: 1.760 exabecquerels (EBq), Power Company (TEPCO), which faced caused health issues like thyroid cancer due to its short half-life (8 days). TOPIC 8: ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS CHE 0315-1 | ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING criticism for its lack of preparedness for such a large-scale natural disaster. The disaster is classified as a Level 7 event on the International Nuclear Event Scale (INES), the highest severity rating, on par with the Chernobyl disaster of 1986. The disaster led to the evacuation of over 160,000 residents. Long-term environmental and health impacts are still ongoing. The cleanup and decommissioning process at Fukushima is expected to take decade