Environment, Resources, and Society PDF

Contents Preface x Features xii Acknowledgements xv About the Authors xviii PART A Introduction 2 1 Environment, Resources, and Society 5 Introduction: Change and Challenge 5 Case Study: Trans Mountain Pipeline 8 Wicked Pr...

Contents Preface x Features xii Acknowledgements xv About the Authors xviii PART A Introduction 2 1 Environment, Resources, and Society 5 Introduction: Change and Challenge 5 Case Study: Trans Mountain Pipeline 8 Wicked Problems 14 The Global Picture 14 Defining Environment and Resources 25 Three Waves Regarding Approaches to Environmental Management 26 Alternative Approaches to Understanding Complex Natural and Socio-economic Systems 26 Science-Based Management of Resources and Environment 27 Sustainable Development and Resilience 28 Implications 30 Summary 33 Key Terms 34 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking 34 Related Websites 35 Responding to Global 2 Environmental Change 36 Introduction 36 Global Perspectives 37 National Perspectives 41 Corporate Perspectives 46 Educational Perspectives 48 Personal Perspectives 51 Measuring Progress 56 Implications 61 Summary 61 Key Terms 62 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking 62 Related Websites 63 vi Co nte nts PART B The Ecosphere 64 3 Energy Flows and Ecosystems 68 Introduction 68 Energy 70 Energy Flows in Ecological Systems73 Ecosystem Structure 84 Biodiversity Implications 93 Summary Key Terms Questions97 for Review and Critical Thinking Related 99 Websites 101 Ecosystems 100 Are Dynamic 100 4 102 Introduction 102 Ecological Succession 103 Changing Ecosystems 111 Population Growth 118 Evolution, Speciation, and Extinction 120 Implications 128 Summary 129 Key Terms 130 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking 131 Related Websites 131 Ecosystems and Matter Cycling 5 132 Introduction 132 Matter 133 Biogeochemical Cycles The Hydrological Cycle Biogeochemical 133 Cycles and Human Activity 145 152 Implications 166 Summary 167 Key Terms 168 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking 168 Related Websites 169 PART C Planning and Management: Perspectives, Processes, and Methods 170 6 Planning and Management Perspectives 174 Introduction 174 Planning and Management Components 175 Implications 186 Summary 187 Key Terms 188 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking 188 Related Websites 188  Co nte nts vii 7 Planning and Management: Processes and Methods 189 Introduction 189 Collaboration and Coordination 190 Stakeholders and Participatory Approaches 190 SLAPPs: Strategic Lawsuit/Litigation against Public Participation 192 Communication 193 Adaptive Management 196 Impact and Risk Assessment 198 Dispute Resolution 202 Regional and Land Use Planning 207 Implementation Barriers 208 Implications 208 Summary 209 Key Terms 210 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking 210 Related Websites 211 PART D Resource and Environmental Management in Canada 212 8 Climate Change 215 Introduction 216 Nature of Climate Change 217 Scientific Evidence Related to Climate Change 218 Modelling Climate Change 225 Implications of Climate Change in Canada 228 Communicating Climate Change 236 Responding to Climate Change 239 Implications 252 Summary 253 Key Terms 254 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking 255 Related Websites 255 Oceans and Fisheries 9 257 Introduction 257 Oceanic Ecosystems 259 Ocean Management Challenges 264 Global Responses 278 Canada’s Oceans and Fisheries 281 Indigenous Use of Marine Resources 288 Some Canadian Responses 292 Aquaculture 296 Implications 298 Summary 299 Key Terms 300 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking 300 Related Websites 301 viii Co nte nts 10 Forests 302 Introduction 302 An Overview of Canada’s Forests 304 Forest Management Practices 311 Environmental and Social Impacts of Forest Management Practices 319 Ecological Forestry 330 Indigenous Forestry Management 332 Global Forest Strategies 335 Implications 341 Summary 342 Key Terms 343 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking 344 Related Websites 344 11 Agriculture 346 Introduction 346 Agriculture as an Ecological Process 348 Agriculture and Climate Change 351 Modern Farming Systems in the Industrialized World 353 Environmental Challenges for Canadian Agriculture 362 Sustainable Food Production Systems 375 Implications 382 Summary 383 Key Terms 384 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking 384 Related Websites 384 Water 385 12 Introduction 386 Human Interventions in the Hydrological Cycle: Water Diversions 387 Water Quality 396 Water Security: Protecting Quantity and Quality 399 Water as Hazard 410 Heritage Rivers 415 Integrated Water Resource Management 418 Water Ethics 420 Implications 423 Summary 425 Key Terms 425 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking 426 Related Websites 426 Minerals and Energy 13 427 Introduction 427 Framing Issues and Questions 428 Non-renewable Resources in Canada: Basic Information 429 Potash and Coal 429 Development of Diamond Mines in Canada 430 The Ekati Mine, NWT 431 Managing Change and Conflict 438 Energy Resources 440 Monitoring Environmental Impacts of Mining 460  Co nte nts ix Implications 460 Summary 461 Key Terms 463 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking 463 Related Websites 464 Urban Environmental Management 14 465 Introduction 465 Sustainable and Resilient Urban Development 466 Environmental Issues and Sustainability Responses in Cities 471 Vancouver: Greenest City 2020 489 Implications 492 Summary 493 Key Terms 493 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking 493 Related Websites 494 Endangered Species and Protected Areas 15 495 Introduction 495 Valuing Biodiversity 496 Main Pressures Causing Extinction 500 Vulnerability to Extinction 511 Responses to the Loss of Biodiversity 512 Protected Areas 519 Implications 536 Summary 536 Key Terms 537 Questions for Review and Critical Thinking 538 Related Websites 538 Epilogue: The Sustainability Revolution 16 539 Key Terms 543 Related Websites 543 Glossary 544 References 555 Index 577  PART A Introduction On Spaceship Earth, there are no passengers; we are all members of the crew. —Marshall McLuhan The relationship among environment, collaboration most important involves workers challenges from facing many humans disciplines on Earth. For coming many together of Earth’stohuman contribute inhab-their understanding itants, of a particular this relationship phenomenon. is an ongoing reality Anthey as understanding try to meetoftheiracideveryday precipitation, needsfor ex- ample, requires input of chemists, for food, water, and shelter. For others, biochem- usu- ists,urban ally climatologists, dwellers in geologists, developed hydrologists, countries, geographers, this reality often biologists, health specialists, seems distant. Food comes economists, from and political the supermarket, andis water legal experts, piped into to name a few. homes, workEach and homediscipline has its own environments ex- have pertise and methods of approach, controlled temperature through central heat- and they canand ing be combined in different air conditioning. waysdisruptions Not until to yield more effective occur answerssystems—caused in these delivery to environmentalby problems. floods, Even with tsunamis, the useice droughts, of storms, science,earth- there can be high quakes, levels ofinsect hurricanes, uncertainty and conflict. infestations, or How weforces similar deal with uncertainty of nature—do andpeople many changere- is one of the main themes of this alize that they, too, depend on the environ- book, and this isfor ment illustrated survival.in the example of the Trans Mountain pipeline from Alberta to Burnaby in This first section introduces some basic British Columbia, examined in Chapter 1. concepts in Chapter 1 regarding the rela- tionship among environment, resources, Toward the end of Chapter 1, two con- and society and the ways by which we try cepts are examined relating to a vision to understand complex natural and socio- for the future: sustainable development economic systems. There are many ways of and resilience. Sustainable development, knowing about environment. Here we con- popularized in 1987 with the publication centrate mainly on the contribution of the of Our Common Future, the report of the natural and social sciences. World Commission on Environment and  4 PART A | Introduction Development, has provoked much debate because differ- ent environmental management in Canada strongly influence our groups interpret it in ways that favour their values and interests. relationship with the environment. Such arrangements are rarely Despite conflicting views about what sustainable development taken into account by scientists and environmen- talists, but means, it frequently appears in policies re- lated to the they can be the most important factor when considering how and environment and natural resources. Thus, it is important to have when a particular problem is going to be addressed. Canada is a a critical appreciation of its strengths and limitations. Resilience large country, and the various levels of government (federal, is the second concept proposed as a guiding concept for provincial/territorial, municipal, Indigenous) are complex and development and environment in the future. Resilience has been often work poorly together. This is compounded by the short- gaining in popularity in many areas of the scholarly and scientific term nature of political leadership and different political parties’ literature, but various approaches what does it really mean, and how can it be enhanced? for responding to environmental change and challenge. We also need to consider Our intentthe roles here is toand responsibilities ensure of the corporate that you understand and education sectors. both these concepts, and their implications. Needless to say, the global situation is infinitely more com- Whether the context is global, national, or regional, we are plex than sustainability or resilience alone. Thus, Chapter 1 interested in measuring our progress in addressing environ- provides an overview of the global situation with regard to mental change, in terms of, for example, the UN Sustainable environment and society. What are some of the main trends Development Goals and the concept of ecological footprint, pointing to future directions? Although disagreements exist both examined in Chapter 2. As noted earlier, however, the about the rate and severity of environmental change, few claim situation is very complex, with far more variables, interac- that overall conditions are improving. One indicator is tions, and changes than can be readily measured. The sec- ond population growth. The United Nations (2017) reported that the chapter thus discusses how we try measuring progress through global population of 7.6 billion people in 2015 was expected to the use of indicators and outlines various kinds of indicators grow to 9.8 billion by 2050 and to 11.2 billion by 2100. and their strengths and weaknesses. The chapter ends with a simple framework that summa- Another important dimension that has only shown growth, rizes the process of resource and environmental manage- however, is resource use, fuelled mainly by the demands of ment. Throughout the book, we return to this framework to consumers in developed countries—we are reminded of the illustrate deficiencies in understanding or lack of connection old comic strip Pogo in which the title character, a possum between different elements of the framework. living in a swamp, famously proclaimed, “We have met the Part A thus provides an overall introduction to environ- enemy, and he is us.” If there is one fundamental message mental change and challenge with reference to global, na- that we would like to convey, it is that the power of indi- tional, and regional levels. Most of the remainder of the viduals to make decisions on a daily basis can reduce these book concentrates on Canada, although we consider global pressures. Canadians have much to contribute in this regard, aspects throughout. Part B provides an overview of the main since we are among the most profligate consumers of en- environmental processes we need to be familiar with to ergy and water in the world and are also among the most understand many environmental problems. Part C discusses prolific producers of waste. Our society has developed into some dimensions and best practices of various aspects of one of the most wasteful on the planet. Only we can turn resource and environmental management. In Part D, we that around. discuss various thematic aspects of resource management, In Chapter 2, we explore how governance institutions such as fisheries, forestry, water, and climate change. The have historically responded to environmental change and final section (the Epilogue) addresses some of these themes challenge, both internationally and domestically, within Can- and notes what individuals can do to effect change for the ada. The jurisdictional and governance arrangements for better in the environment of tomorrow. ▲ Sean Xu/Shutterstock  Environment, Resources, 1 and Society Learning Objectives To appreciate different perspectives related to environ- To distinguish among disciplinary, cross-disciplinary, ment and resources multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary To understand the implications for change, complexity, approaches uncertainty, and conflict relative to environmental issues and To learn about various considerations that must be ad- problems dressed to bring science to bear on environmental and To appreciate the concept of “wicked problems” resource problems To recognize the implications of the Anthropocene To understand the significance of sustainable develop- To understand the nature of human population growth ment and resilience To appreciate the impacts of over-consumption on global ecosystems Introduction: Change and Challenge We are currently facing unprecedented concern regarding health of the planetary ecosystem. However, some deny cli- environmental changes and challenges. In the context of mate and other changes are occurring, and resist initiatives complex global challenges, particularly the changing climate, designed to slow down or reverse such trends. Yet many of many people are increasingly concerned about the fate of the environmental changes and challenges we face also human society, other species on the planet, and the overall offer opportunities—if we could perceive them as such. ▲ UMB-O/Shutterstock 6 PART A | Introduction of reusable bags, for example, the act prohibits PEI businesses from providing plastic checkout bags to their customers for Perspectives on the Environment most products. Climate Change as Opportunity Companies also are taking related initiatives regarding plas- tic bags. For example, in August 2019, Sobeys announced that We have completely mischaracterized our response to the all of its Canadian stores (more than 1,500 across all of its climate emergency as something that doesn’t help the chains) would phase out the use of plastic bags no later than economy. You have the biggest global economic February 2020. The intent is ultimately to stop providing plastic opportunity in the history of humankind in moving off bags in its produce aisles and provide mesh alternatives made fossil fuels as quickly as possible. from recycled bottles. Thus, many opportunities exist for both —Elizabeth May, Canadian Green Party Leader the public and private sectors to reduce the amount of plastic being discarded into the waste management system. At a global scale, pressure on dealing with plastics in- Several examples highlight changes, challenges, and oppor- creased on 31 December 2017 when China decided to stop tunities related to resource and environmental management. importing non-industrial plastic wastes (Brooks, Wang, and As an example of a change and opportunity, Reuters (Davey, Jambeck, 2018). It is estimated that 2 million tonnes of 2018) reported that in April 2018 more than 40 companies in plas- tic were manufactured in 1950, a figure which had Britain, including Procter & Gamble, Nestlé, Coca-Cola, and grown to 322 million tonnes in 2015. And, only 9 per cent of the largest supermarkets had joined the UK Plastics Pact, led plastic is recycled at a global scale, with most being placed by a sustainability group called WRAP (Waste and Resources into landfills or simply discarded, including 4 to 12 million Action Programme). Its goal was to eliminate by 2025 single- tonnes ending up in oceans. It has been estimated that use plastic packaging and to ensure that by then all plastic between 1992 and 2017, China had imported more than packaging was reusable, recyclable, or compostable. In addi- 105 tonnes of plastic, and nations such as the United States, tion, the member companies committed to reach a target of Japan, and Germany relied heavily on shipping used plastic recycling or composting 70 per cent of plastic packaging and to China. With China no longer accepting waste plastics, and that all of their plastic packaging would contain an average of other countries such as Thailand, Vietnam, and Malaysia, 30 per cent recycled content. The UK Plastics Pact aligned which also have accepted discarded plastics from other with Prime Minister Theresa May’s 2018 pledge that by 2042 countries, considering restric- tions on imports of plastics, Britain would eradicate avoidable plastic waste. pressure will grow on many coun- tries to find innovative Then, on 31 October 2018, the 28 member countries in the ways to handle Another used initiative significant plastics.began in May 2019, when, European Union (EU) agreed to make illegal the use of speci- after 12 days of negotiations at a United Nations Environ- fied single-use plastics. In the previous week, an ment Programme meeting held in Geneva, 180 countries, overwhelming majority of EU members had agreed to ban not including the United States, agreed on a strategy single-use plastic straws, cutlery, cotton swab sticks, and intended to significantly reduce the amount of plastic similar items. The EU plans legislation which would be ending up in oceans (DW, 2019). A legally binding approved and become law in 2021. agreement requires these countries to monitor and track In Canada, on 1 January 2018, Montreal became the first thousands of different types of plastic wastes beyond their major city in the country to ban distribution of plastic bags. borders. This new agreement is an update of the Basel The ban focuses on lightweight plastic bags less than 50 mi- Convention of 1989 intended to con- trol hazardous waste, crons thick, as well as biodegradable plastic bags containing including plastics. As one science ad- visor commented, an additive which causes them to decompose under heat and “For far too long developed countries like the US and light. Exceptions are given for thin bags used in grocery stores Canada have been exporting their mixed toxic plastic for wrapping meat or carrying fruit and vegetables. The in- wastes to developing Asian countries claiming it would be tent is to change behaviour and have people shift to reusable recycled in the receiving country. Instead, much of this rather than single-use bags. Merchants were given six months contaminated mixed waste cannot be recycled and is to comply with the ban, after which an individual using non- instead dumped or burned, or finds its way into the ocean” recyclable plastic bags could be fined up to $1,000 and a store(DW, 2019). The agreement signed in Geneva is intended to could be fined up to $2,000 for a first offence. In Victoria, change On such behaviour. 10 June 2019, the Canadian government announced a British Columbia, a similar ban took effect in July 2018, and plan to ban harmful single-use plastics beginning in 2021, to various smaller communities had already initiated such bans. reduce the millions of tonnes of plastic waste annually ending On 1 July 2019, the Plastic Bag Reduction Act (Bill 114) came up in oceans. This decision accelerates the timeline to reduce into effect in Prince Edward Island, making it the first prov- such plastic waste in the oceans; at the 2018 G-7 summit, ince to ban most single-use plastic bags. To encourage the use Canada, along with France, Germany, the United Kingdom,  Environment, Resources, and Society 7 and the EU signed an Ocean Plastics Charter, committing that scheduled from 2019 to the end of 2021, would draw surplus by 2040 all plastic produced in each of their countries would be flows during the winter from the Berg River. Another ini- tiative reused, recycled, or burned to generate energy. This initiative is is to drill for groundwater. Three aquifers have been identified, discussed in more detail in Chapter 9. and it was anticipated that drinking water could be Water shortages are another challenge in many parts of the drawn from the Cape Flats Aquifer by September 2018. How- world. One example is found in Cape Town, South Africa. After ever, this plan failed due to poor water quality in that aquifer, two years (2013 and 2014) of plentiful winter rainfall, drought as well as political struggles among government parties. conditions began in 2015 and continued into 2018. This period Several other actions were identified, but would take longer of unusually dry weather alerted Cape Town officials to the to achieve. At the time of the water crisis, only 8 per cent of the vulnerability of its water supply system. This challenge was par- water in Cape Town was being recycled, with the rest being tially driven by the rapid population growth in the city, from 2.4 discharged into the ocean. A second approach would be to million in 1995 to an estimated 4.3 million in 2018. Thus, over develop desalinization capacity, the most expensive way (per 23 years the population had grown by almost 80 per cent while litre of water) to augment supply. Three very small desaliniza- water storage capacity had increased by only 15 per cent. A tion units producing 16 million litres per day were scheduled further complication is that a significant proportion of the popu- to begin operating in 2018, but these plans were placed on lation lives in “informal settlements,” with little or no infrastruc- hold. In the longer term, Cape Town will consider construct- ture, meaning many homes are not connected to water supply ing a much larger desalinization plant which could produce or sewage systems, making those residents highly vulnerable. 120 to 150 million litres daily. Such a plant would provide a In February 2018, Cape Town stated it was likely to become reliable but costly source of water, especially because it would the first major urban city in the world to run out of water. At use significant energy. In South Africa, coal-fired electricity that time, the six reservoirs providing water to the city were plants produce 90 per cent of the energy in the country, and down to 28.7 per cent of their capacity, and it was estimated such plants use significant volumes of water as well as leaving that “Day Zero” would be 21 April 2018—the date on which a very high carbon footprint. the municipal water supply would be shut down. One reason for If all these projects were implemented, Walton (2018) stated the announcement of the impending Day Zero was that less that by 2021 they would enhance the water supply for the than 40 per cent of the city’s population had moderated their city by 350 million litres per day. In addition to such supply- daily behaviour to use no more than 87 litres per person. side solutions, work will continue to reduce consumption of However, later that month, city officials stated that, due to a water by residents and businesses in Cape Town. However, decrease of over 50 per cent in per capita water use, Day Zero it has been recognized that the sharp restrictions on house- was postponed until 4 June, and subsequently announced that hold water use, while manageable in the short term, caused it would not occur until sometime in 2019. discomfort and thus are not likely to be sustainable. Further- Various information campaigns helped to stimulate changes more, they were seen to further exacerbate inequality, with in behaviour. For example, people were asked to limit showers many households not even having access to running water. to 90 seconds, to use runoff or “grey water” for flushing toi- The Cape Town experience is not unique, and such sce- lets to remove faeces, and to flush only occasionally to remove narios are likely to become more common in the future. For urine. As well, a multi-stage strategy was developed: in the example, in May 2018, São Paulo, Brazil, was on the verge of a first stage, water was rationed through reduction of water pres- similar crisis, and, closer to home, the east coast of Vancouver sure; in later stages, water was available only at 149 identified Island, with the exception of Victoria, was placed under the places, limited to 50 litres per capita per day, to be reduced to most stringent water-use regime in August 2018, with no ap- 25 litres if necessary. In addition, agricultural users of water preciable rainfall having fallen in the previous two months. curtailed their use by 50 per cent, but with an associated loss The above examples—reducing use of plastics in Britain, of 37,000 jobs tied to agriculture. Canada, and elsewhere; the decision by China to stop ac- Reflecting on the experience, Walton (2018) observed that, cepting discarded plastic; and consumption of water in South following the panic in January 2018, the date of Day Zero Africa—were chosen because all of us can relate to them, and steadily was moved further back because total demand, which individuals can make a difference. However, they also illus- had been holding at about 600 million litres/day, began to fall trate that while changes in individual behaviour can have an and settled at about 500 million due to the various restric- impact, initiatives are often also required in the private and tions and higher water rates. In addition, from October 2017 public sectors to place the use of resources and our environ- to May 2018 city workers installed over 46,000 water control mental impact on a different trajectory. devices that limited the amount of water entering homes using The example from South Africa also illustrates that natu- ral over 10,500 litres each month. systems can and do change. Furthermore, strong evi- dence Walton (2018) also reported that various initiatives were ex- exists that human activities often are a main driving force panding water supply capacity. One project, with construction behind environmental change, and many changes are 8 PART A | Introduction Perspectives on the Environment On Change There is nothing wrong with “change,” if it is the right direction. © Design Pics Inc/Alamy Stock Photo —Winston Churchill, British prime minister (1940–5, 1951–5) There is nothing more certain and unchanging than uncertainty and change. —John F. Kennedy, president of the United States (1961–3) Flooding followed by drought has significantly reduced the happening more abruptly and with greater magnitude than grain crop growing in this field in Manitoba. previously. They threaten societal well-being, and society needs to respond thoughtfully and deliberately. Changes also occur as a result of shifts in human values, The changes taking place are often very complex. It is im- expectations, perceptions, and attitudes, which may have im- portant that we grasp the essence of major changes and act ac- plications for future interactions between societies and natural cordingly. We thus conclude the chapter by explaining what we systems. The value of the world economy has increased more mean by “environment,” “resources,” and “society” and then than sixfold in the past 40 years. This increase was not merely consider alternative ways to understand systems, issues, and the result of population growth; the chief cause has been in- problems, as well as identify some key considerations regarding creased consumption. Expectations have changed. Things how scientific understanding and insight can be used to in- seen as luxuries 60 or 70 years ago, such as TVs and form resource and environmental management and decisions. automobiles, can now be found in some of the most remote societies in Changes onnatural Earth. and human systems generate challenges. If we wish to protect the integrity of biophysical systems yet Case Study: also ensure that human needs are satisfied, questions arise about how to determine ecosystem integrity and how to define basic Trans Mountain Pipeline human needs. Such questions force us to think about conditions Context both today and in the future. Such questions also remind us that an understanding of environmental and resource systems re- The Trans Mountain pipeline project, running from Alberta to quires both natural and social sciences. Neither alone provides the southwestern coast of British Columbia, highlights the sufficient understanding and insight to guide decisions. reality that resource and environmental management often In this chapter, we begin by examining the Trans Mountain in- volves much more than scientific and technical pipeline project, designed to increase capacity to move petro- considerations. leum products from Alberta to Burnaby in British Columbia. This case study connects not only to the detailed discussion of global climate change in Chapter 8, but also to many other topics throughout the book. It highlights that manag- ing natural resources and the environment involves a mix of considerations, not just technical ones. The case study vividly demonstrates that decisions are often made in the context of changing conditions, conflicting interests and values, trade- Patrick Gillin/Alamy Stock Photo offs, and uncertainty. These conditions apply not only to the Trans Mountain proposal or, indeed, to Canada generally, but also to the global stage. In this context, we subsequently provide an overview of some major environmental trends and the main issues that arise. There is no doubt that human pop- ulation growth is a stress on this planet, but so are the con- sumption patterns of the more affluent sectors of society. A rally was held in Vancouver in November 2016 to oppose the Trans Mountain pipeline project. These factors are leading to unprecedented changes in global systems.  Environment, Resources, and Society 9 Indeed, while the proposed pipeline predictably generated delayed hatching, increased mortality, increased deformities, protests from certain constituencies, such as environmental- and changes in growth and energy stores. Almost half the ists and some Indigenous peoples, it also triggered major con- salmon studied died within two months of exposure to bitu- flict between the provincial governments of Alberta and BC and men levels equal to those found in the Gulf of Mexico after the raised fundamental questions about the role of the federal 2010 Deepwater Horizon spill (Alderman et al., 2018). government in interprovincial resource development projects. Kinder Morgan announced in May 2012 that it would ex- Perspectives: Provincial, Federal, pand its existing Trans Mountain pipeline from Strathcona County in Alberta, near Edmonton, to Burnaby, BC. The in- and Indigenous tent was to create additional capacity to allow more petroleum The Trans Mountain project, originally to be built by Texas- products from Alberta to reach new markets. The project, based Kinder Morgan, was approved by the federal govern- initially estimated at $7.4 billion ($9.3 billion by mid-2018), ment in 2016 following a multi-year environmental assessment would involve a twinning of the 1,150 km pipeline built in 1953 process. Rachel Notley, leader of the provincial New Demo- (Figure 1.1). About 980 km of new pipeline would be added, cratic Party (NDP) and premier of Alberta from 2015 to 2019, increasing the capacity of 300,000 barrels a day in the original was a strong advocate for the pipeline, given petroleum’s sig- pipeline to 890,000 barrels per day. Almost three- quarters of nificant role in Alberta’s economy. In contrast, John Horgan, the route for the new twin pipeline would follow the right of way premier of BC since 2017 and leader of a minority NDP gov- for the original pipeline, and would create capacity to load ernment supported by the BC Green Party, is strongly critical of about 34 ocean tankers a month at the termi- nal in Burnaby. A the pipeline. During the 2017 BC election he committed to significant motivation was that nearly all oil from Western oppose the Trans Mountain pipeline twinning unless a Canada had been going to only one market— guarantee was provided that spills from the pipeline would the United States—for a price significantly lower than that in be cleaned up properly, because the provincial government had a international other responsibilitymarkets. to protect BC’s coastal and inland waters. Although The originalthepipeline previous BC Liberal carries government refined had approved products, synthetic the pipeline crude oils, andtwinning, light crudeHorgan’s government oils, while the newasked thewould pipeline BC Courtheavier carry of Appeal toHeavy oils. decideoil, whether the BC to also referred government as bitumen, had is too authority thick and to create sticky and apply to flow unlessenvironmental heated or diluted legislation to re- with lighter strict movement hydrocarbons. Asofwell, diluted bitumencontains it normally throughmore the province. sulphur, In late Mayand metals, 2019, thehydrocarbons heavy Court ruled that thantheconventional BC government has oil does. nomajor A such challenge authority because is that if the therefederal government is a spill, heavy oil has exclu- is more sive jurisdiction difficult to remove related from to interprovincial waterways pipelines. than light crude The BC oil, which government floats on the indicated surface ofthat water;it would muchappeal to the oil of the heavy Supreme sinks be- Court of neath theCanada. surface. In 2018, Canadian researchers found many negative impacts of bitumen on juvenile salmon, including Prime Minister Justin Trudeau has argued that the pipe- line is in the national interest and that it is possible to achieve both economic development and protection of the environ- ment. In his view, establishing a price for carbon pollution Prince George across the country lower-emission and cars, creating along incentives with investing in for development public transport of Edson Quesnel 16 Hinton 16 infrastructure, would reduce carbon emissions while still fa- Tête Edmonton cilitating economic development through initiatives such as the 97 Jaune Jasper Trans Mountain pipeline. Cache5 Williams Lake Blue 93 ALBERTA BRITISH Clearwater River COLUMBIA However, his support of the pipeline led some to ques- tion m mitment his coto lowering greenhouse gas emissions Kamloops Trans Mountain Calgary to reduce climate change risks (see also Chapter 8). In that Whistler Merritt pipeline expansion context, he claimed that federal support for the Trans Moun- tain pipeline would in turn ensure Premier Notley’s necessary Hope5 Vancouver Kelowna help in developing a national climate change plan. The fed- Abbotsford Chilliwack eral Conservative party, the official opposition, argued that Victoria N the federal government had constitutional authority related to U S A 100 km interprovincial projects such as pipelines, and therefore should move quickly to ensure the twin pipeline was built. In con- trast, Jagmeet Singh, leader of the federal NDP, called on the FIGURE 1.1 Trans Mountain pipeline route. Source: Vancouver Sun 10 PART A | Introduction federal Liberal government to work with the BC government to challenging still.dispute resolve the Some Indigenous communities, and to prepare however, a reference question to submit to the Supreme Court of Canada, to clarify the have endorsed the pipeline project. respec- tive responsibilities of the federal and provincial governments Governments, Private Sector, on this issue. Courts, and the National The disagreement between BC and Alberta led Premier Notley to declare in mid-February 2018 that her government Energy Board was suspending discussion for Alberta to purchase $500 mil- The prime minister met in mid-April 2018 with Premiers Notley lion worth of electricity from BC, and also was banning im- and Horgan to explore possible approaches to resolve the port of wines from BC, valued at an estimated $70 million conflict. However, Premier Horgan maintained that, annually. She also observed in early March 2018 that her gov- notwithstanding the National Energy Board’s approval of the ernment was ready to stop shipping Alberta petroleum to BC. pipeline and courts ruling in favour of it, he would con- tinue Other provincial leaders expressed views on the Trans with the request to the BC Court to determine if his government Mountain pipeline. Scott Moe, the premier of Saskatchewan, had the right to enact environmental legislation to restrict also a petroleum-producing province, voiced his government’s movement of bitumen through the province. In contrast, both support for the pipeline project and claimed that any delay the Alberta premier and the prime minister indicated they in access to BC ports would cost Saskatchewan $1.8 billion would consider various options for their gov- ernments to invest annually in reduced revenues. In addition, up to 900 steel- in the pipeline project, to reduce the risk to Kinder Morgan. making jobs in Saskatchewan depended on the Trans Moun- tain project. Moe also indicated that his government was In April 2018, Kinder Morgan announced that, due to the prepared to follow Alberta to retaliate against BC if it opposed opposition from the BC government, it would suspend all the pipeline. From Manitoba, Premier Brian Pallister said that non-essential expenditures on the pipeline project unless the the leadership in BC “should get out of the way” related to dispute was resolved by the end of May 2018. The company the pipeline initiative, whereas Phillippe Couillard, premier stated that, given the pipeline was in the national interest, one of Quebec, criticized the federal government for appearing to provincial government should not be able to block it. Further- want to override the provincial government in BC. He argued more, Kinder Morgan noted that it had invested $1.1 billion that it was wrong for the federal government to ignore pro- of the $7.4 billion total cost, given that some construction vincial legislation in BC, stating that the federal government had started in 2017, and that it would be imprudent to invest should seek provincial input on important matters, even if not further funds until clarification was achieved so that share- required under the Constitution. Absence of such consulta- holders’ funds would not be at risk. Steve Kean, chairman of tion, he argued, put cooperative federalism at risk. Kinder Morgan, said, “A company cannot resolve differences Comments in the media highlighted the political challenge between governments. While we have succeeded in all legal thechallenges to date, a company federal government cannot litigate faced in resolving its way the dispute to an in-service pipeline amidst jurisdictional differences between about thegovernments” pipeline. The(Trans Mountain, Liberals had won2018). 4 seats in Alberta and 17 in BC in the 2015 federal election, and had gained one more seat in BC in a by-election in 2017. An Angus Reid poll in In May 2018, the Alberta government took another step to April 2018 indicated that the public in BC was split, with put pressure on BC, by passing legislation giving the minis- ter 23 per cent strongly supporting the pipeline and 24 per cent of Energy authority to restrict shipments of bitumen to BC if its strongly opposing it. However, support and opposition ex- government continued to create obstacles to the Trans isted in different parts of the province, with respondents in Mountain pipeline twinning project. Premier Notley did not say the Lower Mainland being twice as likely as those elsewhere when the power authorized by the new law would be used, but to oppose the pipeline, and those in the BC Interior being said that if the dispute with BC regarding the pipeline were not strongly supportive. Sixteen of the 18 federal Liberal seats settled soon, she was prepared, with short notice, to use the were in ridings in the Lower Mainland and Fraser Valley, and law to “turn off the taps” to BC. Such action would likely cause if approved, the pipeline possibly could put some of those higher prices for gasoline in BC (then about $1.57/litre). seats at risk for the 2019 federal election. The response from BC’s attorney general, David Eby, also Prime Minister Trudeau also faced a dilemma related to was aggressive. In a letter to Alberta justice minister Kathleen Indigenous peoples. He has been an outspoken advocate of Ganley, Eby argued that Alberta should delay proclaiming reconciliation with First Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples, the bill until its constitutionality had been determined by a but the route for the Trans Mountain twin pipeline would judge. If the Alberta government did not agree to seek judi- in some places cross over unceded Indigenous land. The cial approval before proclaiming the bill, Eby stated he would courts have often supported the rights of Indigenous peoples initiate a legal challenge in the courts of Alberta, which he regarding their ancestral lands, making this dilemma more did in May 2018, seeking both an injunction in the Court  Environment, Resources, and Society 11 of Queen’s Bench of Alberta and financial compensation if It also was noted that the federal government had the con- Alberta ever restricted the movement of bitumen to BC. Ac- stitutional authority to construct such an interprovincial cording to Eby, the rationale for the lawsuit was the belief that pipeline. BC premier Horgan acknowledged this fact, but the bill passed in Alberta was designed to punish BC. BC also nevertheless stated that his government would continue with had decided to join in two additional lawsuits which had been its request to the BC Court to clarify whether the provincial initiated by Indigenous groups opposed to the pipe- line government had authority to regulate pipelines in BC. project. Other legal issues were receiving attention. For example, on Federal Court of Appeal Decision 24 May 2018, the BC Supreme Court ruled that the previous and Reactions to It provincial government’s approval of the twinned pipeline had been done appropriately. The question arose as the Squamish At the end of August 2018, the Federal Court of Appeal struck First Nation had challenged whether the government had down the federal government’s approval of the Trans Mountain adequately consulted with it prior to approving the project. pipeline. The three judges unanimously concluded that the Justice Grauer ruled that the process and associated consulta- National Energy Board’s review of the pipeline pro- posal was tion with the Squamish First Nation met legal requirements. He fundamentally flawed and did not provide a basis for the indicated he understood that the Squamish First Nation was approval decision. The Court identified two major shortcomings. disappointed in the approval of the Trans Mountain pipe- line, First, the environmental impact assessment had neglected to as it had vigorously opposed the proposal. Nevertheless, he consider the effects of increased oil tanker traffic on the BC emphasized that his ruling was based on whether legal re- coast. Specifically, concern was expressed about the lack of quirements related to consultation with the Squamish First attention to the effects on the marine envi- ronment around the Nation had been met prior to the Environmental Assessment terminal in Burnaby, where petroleum would be loaded onto Certificate being issued for the pipeline. ships. In addition, the environmental assessment had not given sufficient attention to the negative effects of increased tanker Around the same time, federal finance minister Bill Mor- traffic on the population of en- dangered southern resident neau stated that his government would compensate Kinder killer whales, nor to the risk of a spill of diluted bitumen, in Morgan, or any other company that took over the project, for those waters. The whales and their habitat are legally protected any financial losses due to politically driven delays, to under Canada’s Species at Risk Act (as discussed in Chapter ensure the expansion was completed. No other companies 15). Second, the federal government’s consultation with came for- ward, further stoking the belief that the project Indigenous peoples was deemed lacking. The consultation was had simply become uneconomic for Kinder Morgan, given limited to hearing and recording Indigenous peoples’ concerns, falling global oil prices. Thus, on 29 May 2018, Morneau and then for- warding those concerns to decision-makers; and announced that the federal government would buy the meaningful two-way dialogue never occurred. The three judges Trans Mountain proj- ect and all its core assets (pipeline, stipulated that the National Energy Board must complete a new pumping stations, rights of way, marine terminal) for $4.5 review, which could be done quickly, and also to engage billion. Kinder Morgan would continue building the twin pipeline, seriously with Indigenous peoples. The federal government was given that the purchase of the project would not be finalized given 90 days to respond to the court’s ruling, with an option to until August. The federal government would then continue extend the time limit. project construction, intending to sell the entire project if market conditions improved. Morneau stated potential buy- ers could include interested investors, such as pension funds, Reactions to the decision were predictable. Premier N otley Indigenous communities, the Alberta government, or some declared that Alberta would withdraw from the proposed combination of these. Premier Notley indicated Alberta national climate change plan, and would not participate un- was prepared to invest $2 million in the project, against the less and until the federal government enabled the project to $4.5 billion that it cost the taxpayers of Canada. In August proceed. In contrast, BC premier John Horgan praised the 2018, Kinder Morgan told the US Securities and Exchange decision. At the federal level, Prime Minister Trudeau and Fi- Commission that the costs of completion were likely to be nance Minister Morneau stated that the pipeline was in the 50 per cent higher than their estimates and the project was national interest and needed to go ahead. Trudeau observed it no longer economically feasible, in keeping with the ear- was essential to ensure that the government was on the right lier observation that the estimated cost increased over time. track with both the science and the environmental protec- Finally, according to Morneau, the public purchase of new tion, and that the project would be completed in a way that oil infrastructure was an investment in the future of Canada. would reflect the true spirit of reconciliation and partnership This view would be widely contested by those who believe that with Indigenous peoples. He highlighted the federal govern- Canada should invest in developing new energy sources for ment’s commitment to complete the project in the $4.2 bil- the future that contribute less to climate change. lion purchase of the pipeline.  12 PART A | Introduction National Energy Board Report and environments on land and sea are protected, as well as human communities. In contrast, the Grand Chief of the Union of Reactions to It British Columbia Indian Chiefs, Stewart Phillip, said that “jobs On 22 February 2019, the National Energy Board (2019) [appear to be] worth more than justice in Canada”; and that completed its report. It acknowledged that increased tanker further lawsuits and demonstrations related to the pipe- line traffic due to the new pipeline capacity could contribute to project would happen, and opponents would be seeking legal “significant adverse environmental effects” on resident south- advice. A lawyer also commented that the prescribed review ern killer whales (orcas), negative impacts on Indigenous cul- had an inappropriately limited scope, for example, in its failure ture, and increased greenhouse emissions, but recommended to consider the impact of the pipeline on salmon- spawning the pipeline be constructed because of significant benefits that streams and rivers that provide food for the killer whales would be realized, including new markets for Canadian oil, job (Healing, 2019: B1). creation, expenditures on pipeline materials, and consider- able A protest in February 2019 highlighted the strong feelings revenue for federal and provincial governments. generated by oil pipelines. A convoy of hundreds of semi- trailers, pickup trucks, buses, and cars left Red Deer, Alberta, The report contained 16 new recommendations, including on 14 February and arrived in Ottawa on the morning of 19 develop a plan to assess the effects on the Salish Sea and a February. The purpose was to urge the federal Liberal govern- ment to drop its carbon tax, as well as two bills intended to long-term strategy to manage those effects develop a marine bird monitoring and protection program strengthen environmental assessments of energy projects and expedite a study for establishing a Southern Strait of G eorgia ban oil tankers from northern BC coastal waters. As Bartko National Marine Conservation Area Reserve and create it if (2019) reported, a spokesperson for the protesters stated that fe a sible their interest was in building Canada and building pipelines develop a program to offset increased underwater noise because “Canada was built with natural resources and that’s and increased strike risk posed to marine mammal and fish what this is about.” Another observed that the protest was species about “showing support for new pipelines and opposition to the federal carbon tax and new rules on oil transportation.” have Transport Canada review federal marine oil spill compensation regimes with regard to compensation for Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities that may be 2019 Provincial Election in Alberta: affected Implications for the Trans Mountain Pipeline Premier Notley welcomed the report, but recognized that Another key event related to the Trans Mountain pipeline was further work was needed. Thirty-two Indigenous communi- the Alberta provincial election in mid-April 2019. The out- ties still were waiting to be consulted. Ian Anderson, CEO come was defeat of the Notley NDP government and election of Trans Mountain, observed the report provided “specific of a solid majority for the United Conservative Party led by and achievable conditions” for the pipeline to ensure that Jason Kenney. Kenney had focused during the campaign on promoting economic growth in Alberta by revitalizing the oil industry and securing new pipelines to carry Alberta oil to external markets. He also criticized what he labelled “foreign- funded environmentalists” who he claimed were hindering the oil industry. Kenney pledged to fight the federal Liberal government to ensure pipelines such as the Trans Mountain were completed. And, as noted in Chapter 8, he also commit- ted to challenge the federal government’s carbon tax imposed on Alberta, Saskatchewan, Ontario, and New Brunswick, whose governments had decided not to implement carbon pricing on their own; end the phase-out of coal-fired plants in Alberta; stop offering incentives for renewable energy projects; Lazareva/iStockphoto challenge proposed changes to federal legislation that would overhaul how approval is granted for major energy projects when the federal government has jurisdiction; and use new legislation to halt or restrict oil shipments to BC if its govern- The Trans Mountain pipeline project could have significant negative effects on resident southern killer whales off the ment continued to oppose expansion of the Trans Mountain coast of British Columbia. pipeline. He also claimed a growing resentment and alienation  Environment, Resources, and Society 13 in Alberta due to the federal government’s approach to the that cross provincial borders. Premier Horgan expressed his environment and energy development. disappointment but said the BC government would do what- ever is possible to protect both the coast and the environment of BC. Federal Approval and Reactions to It In July 2019, Ecojustice, a Canadian non-profit environ- On 18 June 2019, Prime Minister Trudeau announced the mental law organization, submitted a motion on behalf of the federal government’s approval of the Trans Mountain pipe- line Raincoast Conservation Foundation and the Living Oceans project. This decision came one day after the Liberals passed a Society to the Federal Court of Appeal, requesting a judicial motion in the House of Commons to declare climate change as review of cabinet’s acceptance of the National Energy Board’s a national emergency, thereby raising its emission reduction re c om mend at ion s. targets. Trudeau stated that while his government was Finally, some Indigenous groups indicated they would con- sympathetic to concerns about the environment and the need tinue to oppose the pipeline project. Several First Nations, to transition to cleaner energy sources, Canada needs to take however, had led in developing proposals to buy into the advantage of its natural resources in order to fund that t r a n sit pipeline. Their leaders welcomed the federal pipeline ion. approval, and especially the prime minister’s promise that He explained that the Liberal government would reinvest Indigenous peoples would have the opportunity to buy into all new federal revenue from Trans Mountain into clean en- it. Trudeau had mentioned such participation could involve ergy and green technology. This would include an estimated partial or complete ownership, revenue-sharing, or other $500 million annually in additional corporate tax revenues options (Keller and Cox, 2019; Rabson, 2019). Indeed, an once the pipeline is operating, plus any revenue from sale of Indigenous-based group, Project Reconciliation, emerged in the entire expanded pipeline to the private sector. He also in- 2019 and proposed a $6.9 million plan to the federal dicated that the government had accepted the 156 government through which a consortium involving conditions in the National Energy Board’s report. However, Indigenous communities in BC, Al- berta, and six would be amended to require that Indigenous Saskatchewan would purchase a majority stake in the communities become involved in developing marine project. This discussion emphasizes how political, legal, and eco- emergency response plans, mitigating impacts on sacred nomic factors are important components of decisions related sites, and ensuring Indigenous involvement in post- to resource and environmental management and construction impact reporting. Eight new measures were development initiatives, and that we must address such added, to ensure Indigenous concerns are taken into aspects systemati- cally and thoughtfully. It also reinforces account, including possibly rerouting the pipeline away from the characterization of such situations as “wicked problems,” areas for which Opposition communities parties were criticalhad flagged of the concerns. Liberal decision. a concept discussed in the next section. Andrew Scheer, leader of the Conservatives, questioned It was noted above that in late August 2018, the F ederal whether the twinned pipeline would ever be built, given the Court of Appeal struck down the federal government’s history of delays. Elizabeth May, leader of the Greens, and approval of the Trans Mountain expansion and invited the Jagmeet Singh, leader of the NDP, criticized the approval out- government to respond to this ruling. The federal govern- right, citing the long-term need to evolve from fossil fuels to ment conducted further work and submitted a response to the ensure integrity of environmental systems. Court. On 4 February 2020, the Court ruled that the federal Premier Horgan of BC recognized that the federal govern- government had now consulted sufficiently with Indigenous ment had authority for its decision, but also vowed to con- communities along the pipeline route and that the regulatory tinue to oppose the project. In Alberta, Premier Jason Kenney review of the project had incorporated all required compo- endorsed the approval, but argued that it represented but one nents. In the Court’s opinion, through these consultations the step in a process that had become much too long, and that government had genuinely engaged in two-way communica- other matters needed attention in order to move oil to world tions to obtain the views of affected stakeholders. In addition, energy markets. Specifically, he noted that two bills before the Court observed that some new conditions had been estab- Parliament threatened capacity to get oil to world markets, lished to address concerns raised about impacts of the pipeline and that proposed amendments needed to be incorporated. (Orland and Argitis, 2020). However, objections may con- One bill would ban oil tankers in waters off the northern coast tinue, and one lawyer observed that the Court’s ruling prob- of BC, and the other would improve the assessment process re-ably would be appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada. garding major projects such as pipelines. On 16 January 2020, the Supreme Court of Canada unanimously upheld the ruling by the BC Court of Appeal because the proposed provincial Questions permits for a pipeline would violate the federal government’s Projects such as the Trans Mountain pipeline prompt many constitutional authority to approve and regulate pipelines complicated questions, often leading to polarized answers. 14 PART A | Introduction Before moving on to the next section, consider these questions: The Global Picture Our home, planet Earth, is different from all the other planets 1. Should one province have the right to block economic de- we know. As it hurtles through space at 107,200 kilometres per velopment elsewhere if it deems the environmental costs hour, an apparently infinite supply of energy from the sun fuels are too high? a life-support system that should provide perpetual sus- 2. Do you support or oppose the pipeline? Why? tenance for Earth’s passengers. Unfortunately, this seems not 3. What other information would you like to have to help to be the case. Organisms are becoming extinct at rates unsur- you make an informed decision? passed for at least 65 million years. These extinctions cover all 4. The environmental review process did not take into ac- life forms and probably represent the largest orgy of extinction count “downstream uses” of the oil and its impacts on ever in the 4.5-billion-year history of the planet. Our seas are no global climate change. Some people believe that we can no longer the infinite sources of fish we thought they were. Our longer afford to take such truncated views of environmen- forests are dwindling at unprecedented rates. Even the tal assessment (see, for example, Chapter 6) and a more atmosphere is changing in composition and making the spec- strategic approach is required. What do you think? tre of significant climate change a reality. Every raindrop that 5. Do you believe this was the best way to invest over $7 bil- falls on this planet bears the indelible stamp of the one organ- lion of public money in what is essentially a job-creating ism bringing about these changes—you and us. Awareness of scheme, or could alternatives have been considered? the dominant influence of humans on planetary processes has led scientists to consider formal designation of a new epoch, the Anthropocene, in the Earth’s evolution (Box 1.1). Wicked Problems Concern over this deterioration of ecosystems around the The Trans Mountain project is a good example of what has globe led to a request by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in been termed a “wicked problem.” Churchman (1967: B141) 2000 to assess the relationship between planetary ecosystems introduced the concept and explained that wicked and the demands placed on them by human activity. Between problems are ill-defined, with incomplete and/or 2001 and 2005, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment contradictory infor- mation or interpretations, many (MEA) examined the consequences of ecosystem change for stakeholders with values in conflict, and an overall system human well-being and established the scientific basis for actions and related issues that are un- certain and confusing. to enhance the conservation and sustainable use of ecosystems Churchman cautioned that, as a result of such features, and their contributions to human well-being. Some 1,360 ex- solutions could trigger new problems worse than the initial perts from 95 countries were involved in the assessment and symptoms. A practical characteristic of wicked problems is that usu- concluded that environmental degradation was occurring ally a single obviously correct solution does not exist. Instead, faster than at any time in the past, that many of the changes managers and decision-makers have choices among various are non-linear, and once they start, the processes of degrada- options, each with strengths and limitations as well as un- tion often increase rapidly. These positive feedback loops are certainties. As a result, to assess options, attention must be discussed more extensively in Chapter 5 and throughout the given to recognizing the different values and priorities of vari- rest of the book. Since the landmark UN assessment, many ous stakeholders and to finding a solution that will achieve as subsequent scientific papers have documented the continuing many benefits as possible while minimizing disadvantages, trend of rapid environmental degradation described in the including the likelihood of causing major new problems or MEA, and these papers are also referenced in subsequent exacerbating existing ones. A realist also will recognize that chapters. undoubtedly the outcome will involve some winners and los- ers and that not everyone will be thrilled with the outcome. Regarding those who do not get what they hoped for, it then Population becomes essential to explain the rationale for the course One main variable that affects our impact on the plan- etary taken, and, to the extent possible, provide assistance to those life-support system is the number of passengers being who become disadvantaged. supported. Although countless billions of passengers—from To what extent does the Trans Mountain pipeline proj- insects to the great blue whale—are on board planet Earth, we ect represent a wicked problem? What options might meet are mainly concerned with those who seem to be having the the concerns of those fundamentally opposed to such a greatest impact on the system—humans, or Homo sapiens. This proj- ect? One main objection to the pipeline is this species, along with a few others such as rats and cock- roaches, Canadian- sanctioned project’s impact not only on Canada has experienced a staggering increase in population numbers but also the rest of the world through adding to global over the past century. warming. The next section provides an overview of some of The steep curve of population increase, shown in Figure 1.2, these global challenges. coincides with the time that humans learned how to exploit  Environment, Resources, and Society 15 Environment in Focus BOX 1.1 The Anthropocene The International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) Anthropocene concept acknowledge the difficulty in setting a characterizes the epoch that started about 11,700 years ago, start date, but argue that it began during the early 1800s, driven after the last major ice age, as the Holocene, meaning “entirely by the Industrial Revolution. The key point, they argue, is that recent.” However, some scientists, including Eugene Stoermer the Anthropocene highlights that humans are signifi- cantly and Nobel laureate Paul Crutzen, recently proposed that a better affecting the planet in its entirety. term for today’s epoch is the “Anthropocene,” from anthro, The IUGS assembled an Anthropocene Working Group of meaning “human,” and cene meaning “new.” The rationale is scientists to determine whether the Holocene is over and a that in the recent past and today, humans are significantly new epoch to be called the Anthropocene has started within altering the atmosphere through greenhouse gas emissions, the Quaternary period. In August 2016 the group published an which drive climate change; causing serious pollution of oceans; article in Science in which it concluded that the Anthropocene and triggering extinctions of animal and plant species. As a was functionally and stratigraphically distinct from the result, proponents of the term “Anthropo- Holocene, and that it began in the mid- cene” argue that it better captures the era in which we live twentieth century (Walters et al., 2016). At the same time, because people have become a dominant force influencing its conclusion and recommendations were submitted to the the global environment. IUGS. Sixty per cent of the members of the International The IUGS uses a series of terms (Quaternary, Tertiary, Commission on Stratigraphy and of the Executive Com- mittee Cretaceous, Jurassic, Triassic, etc.) to characterize different of the IUGS will need to endorse this conclusion before the geological periods in the Earth’s evolution, and argues that concept of the Anthropocene will be formally adopted, which any geological epochs within a period (e.g., Holocene and may take some time, as both groups are very conservative. Pleistocene, both within the Quaternary period) must be de- fined with reference to new boundaries in rock strata. Those What are your thoughts about the appropriateness of who support that view argue that the Anthropocene has Anthropocene as a new epoch? What value could it have in no such definitive benchmark to indicate when it began as an reminding people that humans have become a major force epoch and therefore is inappropriate. Supporters of the in shaping the evolution of our environment and planet? 2.1% 11.2 Billion 2 10.8 Billion Annual growth rate of the world population 10.2 Billion World population 1.8 9.2 Billion 1.6 1.4 7.4 Billion 1.2 Per cent 1 4.4 Billion 0.8 0.6 3 Billion 0.4 1.65 Billion 0.9 Billion 0.2 0.1% 0 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2015 Projection (UN Medium Fertility Variant) FIGURE 1.2 The growth of human population, 1750 to 2015, with projections to 2100. Source: Rose and Ortiz-Ospina (2017). 16 PART A | Introduction the vast energy supplies of past photosynthetic activity lain Much of the projected increase will occur in nine countries down as coal and oil in the Earth’s crust. Until then, energy between 2015 and 2050. In order, those countries are India, supplies had been limited by daily inputs from the sun. The Nigeria, Congo, Pakistan, Ethiopia, Tanzania, the United discovery of this new treasure house of energy allowed hu- States, Uganda, and Indonesia. China and India both have mans to increase food supplies dramatically and improve and populations of more than 1 billion people, representing 19 and greatly speed up the processing and transportation of materi- 18 per cent, respectively, of the world’s population. By 2022, als (see Chapters 3 and 13 for more discussion on this). By early it is anticipated that India will pass China as the country with 2019, just over 7.7 billion humans were drawing upon the the largest population. In contrast, Nigeria’s population is planetary life-support system for sustenance; before the Indus- trial Revolution, there were fewer than a billion. Another re- sult of increased energy consumption is the pollution that now chokes this life-support system and is causing unprecedented human-induced changes in global climate. An estimated 4.4 people are born every second around the world. For a sense of how rapidly population growth is occurring, check the population “worldometer” (see “Worldometers” in Related Websites at the end of this chapter) which provides a live count of population increase. The United AP Photo/Rajesh Kumar Singh Nations forecasts an increase to 9.8 billion people by 2050 and 11.2 billion by 2100 (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2017a), representing more than 83 million additional people per year to feed. This scenario assumes that replacement-level fertility rates are maintained. Very small differences in fertility assumptions can make a large difference The symbolic 7 billionth human is born. At the Community in population levels (Figure 1.3). The figures quoted above Health Centre in Mall, about 45 kilometres from Lucknow in represent an increase from those made only a couple of years India’s most populous state of Uttar Pradesh, father and before, as fertility rates seem to be declining more slowly than mother look on their newborn daughter, Nargis. Born on 31 October 2011, Nargis is the symbolic 7 billionth human had been projected earlier, and death rates are falling rapidly in presently on Earth. some regions. Total population by variant more developed regions Total population by variant less developed regions 1,900 15,000 1,800 Medium variant 14,000 Medium variant High variant High variant 1,700 13,000 Low variant Low variant 1,600 12,000 Total population (millions) Total population (millions) 11,000 1,500 10,000 1,400 9,000 8,000 1,300 7,000 1,200 6,000 1,100 5,000 1,000 4,000 900 3,000 2,000 800 1950 2000 2050 2100 1950 2000 2050 2100 FIGURE 1.3 World population growth and projections, 1950–2100. More developed regions (left); less developed regions (right). A medium (or standard) variant refers to the most likely demographic forecast, whereas the low and high variants indicate the lower and upper limits of what are deemed to be realistic projections. Each variant is calculated based on estimates regarding numerous factors and variables. Source: UN Population Division (2017).  Environment, Resources, and Society 17 Environment in Focus BOX 1.2 Population and Exponential Growth Population change is a result of the interaction between births resources—upon which to increase wealth for the future. Indeed, and deaths. The crude birth rate (CBR) minus the crude death there are concerns that some developed countries will start rate (CDR) yields the crude growth rate (CGR), all usually losing population in the future, which will have a negative impact expressed per thousand of the population per year. In this way, on their economies. For example, Japan is predicted to lose populations of different countries, regardless of their size, can be 14 per cent of its population by 2050, with notable declines also compared. The figures are known as “crude” because they give anticipated for Germany, Russia, and Italy. In both the US and no insights into factors such as age and sex ratios, figures very Canada, the trend is predicted to move in the opposite direction, important for understanding future potential growth. If CBR and largely as a result of im- migration. By 2050, it is estimated that CDR are equal, a zero population growth will result if the effects Canada’s population (37.5 million in early October 2019) will of migration are excluded. have increased to slightly over 44 million, mainly through In 1798, a British clergyman, Thomas Malthus, pointed out that immigration. population growth was geometric or exponential (i.e., 2, 4, 8, Political leaders in some of the less developed countries 16, 32, 64, and so on), whereas the growth in food sup- ply was experiencing the most rapid population growth rates have ar- arithmetic (i.e., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and so on). This phenom- enon, said gued that population growth per se is not a problem and that the Malthus, would inevitably lead to famine, disease, and war. Such main problem is over-consumption in the more developed a viewpoint was not popular in his day, when population growth countries. This distributive concern is echoed by many wom- was considered very beneficial. For many years, the Malthusian en’s groups—also wary of coercive birth control programs— who view was ignored. The opening of new lands for cultivation in think that most progress can be achieved by improving the North America and the southern hemi- sphere and later the status of women. Women with more education usually have development of Green Revolution tech- niques (Chapter 11) smaller, healthier families, and their children have a bet- ter allowed food supplies to increase rapidly. chance of making it out of poverty. Yet two-thirds, or 496 million, Increasing numbers of experts, watching the decline in food of the world’s 781 million adults over 15 years of age who can supplies per capita over the past few years (see Chapter 11) and neither read nor write are women (United Nations Statistics the increase in population, particularly in less developed Division, 2015), and 116 million women aged 15 to 24 had never countries, now feel that the Malthusian spec- completed primary school (UNESCO, 2013). tre is quite real. More than 80 million people are added Women who have the choice of delaying marriage and child- every year to the population in less developed countries, bearing past their teens also have fewer children than teen compared to about 1.6 million in more deve