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Ancient Notes Year 12 HSC TOPIC 1:Pompeii and Herculaneum Survey The Geographical setting and natural features of Campania -Pompeii was built on a volcanic plateau between Sarno River and slopes of Mount Vesuvius -Strategically important being the only linked route between the north and south. -...

Ancient Notes Year 12 HSC TOPIC 1:Pompeii and Herculaneum Survey The Geographical setting and natural features of Campania -Pompeii was built on a volcanic plateau between Sarno River and slopes of Mount Vesuvius -Strategically important being the only linked route between the north and south. -Connected the seaside with the agricultural region further inland -Abundant resources due to location for fishing alongside highly fertile soil to grow crops. -Specialties include wine, olives and garum. Mount Vesuvius can be seen not far away and the Sarno River flows past. (Pliny the Elder, Natural History) The eruption of Ad 79 and its impact on Pompeii and herculaneum Early discoveries and the changing nature of excavations in the 19th and 20th centuries Representations of pompeii and herculaneum over time Focus of Study-Investigating and interpreting the sources for Pompeii and Herculaneum Feedback from task Impact of Eruption on Herculaneum - less detail on eruption more on context of the impact (vague) ⅔ importance of water supply and sanitation to everyday life - A bit more detail of sanitation and health may connect to everyday life.better 5/5 Economic activity in Pompeii and Herculaneum- try to be more formal, improve structure at time keeping line of argument consistent. New research changing understanding of P and H - keep in line with question, more mention on what we have learnt rather than what we can , more detail on given sources. Issues of conservation and reconstruction italian and international contributions and responsibilities Negative impacts on Pompeii and Herculaneum - sunlight fading frescos, - water deteriorating buildings (suburban bath houses ), - acid rain causing discolouration,abrasion and corrosion, weeds and roots getting into cracks to destabilise surfaces - insects and birds nesting,excrement and pecking at surfaces, - poor restoration work failed restore and conservation replacement of lintels over doors and windows causing mould - looting 1975-2000 600 stolen items Italian mafia damages and stolen collapse of house of gladiators 2010 Poor site management- lack of good resources ,leadership and skills, failure to monitor , corruption, divided authority between superintendent and city manager Andrea Carandine archaeologist “we are stunned when walls fall down but these are ruins not systematically managed so the miracle is that so few of them collapse’. International involvement- UNESCO claimed conditions that caused house of gladiator collapse 2010 where widespread in 2012 visited site where Italian authorities put in place emergency conservation project recruiting new staff for maintenance and management Packard institute- 2000 long term commitment $10 mil to HCP , Getty conservation working in colab with HCP to address conservation issues. Great Pompeii project- Retaliation to 2010 house of gladiator collapse 105$ mil from Italian gov to conserve , maintain and restore Pompeii aimed to requalify site by 2015 by reducing hydrogeological risk, securing insulace, consolidate and restore masonry,protect from weather exposure and strengthen security. Herculaneum conservation project- Andrew Wallace key player AIMS: - To halt serious decay restored ancient sewer networks, - Removed groundwater issue, - replaced roofing, - safeguarding, restored concrete lintels from 20th century - methods to conserve and consolidate paintings and mosaics. - Discovered ancient network of sewers and drains containing examinable excrement. - Outside input from british school at Rome and local heritage authority funded by packard institute executed by Italian personnel. Ethical issues excavation and conservation and display of human remains Study and display of human remains is valuable as it helps understand diet and health , info lifestyle via clothes etc, new tech may later reveal more info R.Ford “Human remains are indispensable for archaeological research”. However it is also somewhat unethical as displays may be disrespectful, displacement may go against cultural beliefs, making profits from the dead, damaging them from removing their laying place.- International council of museums “human remains should be displayed with professional standards taking into account interests and beliefs of the originating group and must be presented with respect for human dignity”. Ownership - Issues regarding theft and looting as artefacts are sold on the black market, issues other who should own the history of these sites either archaeologists to study , museums to display , the country's authority for their beliefs and culture or the site itself so they can stay and not be damaged. Pamela Bradley 2013 Author “most international laws claim ultimate ownership of all antiquities found within its borders”. Excavation vs conservation - Should we keep digging or protect what we have now? ,pro-excavating Chance for new ideas and to improve worlds knowledge We have great tech and are more likely to uncover new things Studying seismic activity in case of another eruption Robert fowler Professor of Greek at the University of Bristol “The lost works waiting to be found there stagger the imagination” Pro-conserving Andre Wallace, scientific director of the Herculaneum Conservation Project “But the logic that drives any modern excavation must be preservation, not the pursuit of a dream. a volcanic eruption can scarcely do more damage to what lies buried: it is the parts exposed that are most at risk.” More important to conserve for future generations We haven’t investigated what is already uncovered like Insula Of Menander project Excavated items are unsafe and need protection We should wait for better technologies before continuing to excavate as we may damage or even destroy site Final issue: tourism - Feet, trample and wear down site also can expose lead pipes, - Breath and camera flashes causing further deterioration to wall paintings, - backpacks brush and wear down walls, - rubbish left attracts vermin, - souvenirs taken stealing from site, - people climb barriers getting into not stable areas and also grafting places. - “Henri De saint Blanquat - “there are vast crowds of tourists… it is impossible to keep an eye on everyone. Some find their way into the courtyard and start to push against columns eventually knocking them down”. Value and impact of tourism problems and solutions Tourism as a double edged sword One hand it is good for the site as nearly 3 million tourists a year produce much needed revenue that goes back into the site as well as promoting the importance of this site. However loss of tourism has its impacts feet, trample and wear down site also can expose lead pipes, breath and camera flashes causing further deterioration to wall paintings, backpacks brush and wear down walls, rubbish left attracts vermin, souvenirs taken stealing from site, people climb barriers getting into not stable areas also grafting places. “Henri De saint Blanquat - “there is vast crowds of tourists… it is impossible to keep an eye on everyone. Some find their way into the courtyard and start to push against columns eventually knocking them down”. Management strategies - more security and cameras funded by the Italian Government, virtual and audio tours to reduce foot traffic, bad tourist hashtag exposing bad tourist behaviours. TOPIC 2: Greek World The Greek World Role and contributions of Themistocles, Leonidas, Pausanias, Eurybides Leonidas - Led the greeks in the battle of Thermopylae - Held out the persians for a day, despite being outnumbered which assisted in buying time for the evacuation of Athen - Held the strategic location of Thermopylae being a small, narrow valley meaning the persians were forced into a choke point - As Leonidas found out he had been betrayed, he ordered the rest of the greek forces to leave whilst staying behind with his 300 spartans and 10,000 helots - One of two spartan kings - “Leonidas was brave, but not always demonstrative of great generalship” Themistocles - Themistocles played a huge role in greek unity convincing the spartans to stay for the battle when they wanted to go home - Responsible for persuading Athens to build their naval power which was critical in the war - Themistocles led the navy during the Battle of Salamis and resulted in victory - Sent a false messenger to Xerxes, spreading misinformation for a large scale attack which led them into the Greeks trap at Salamis - Was a skilled and valued leader who ultimately led the Greeks to victory Eurybiades - Spartan commander during the Battle of Salamis and was the official commander - Not credited as much as Themistocles but still contributed in the battle - Convinced Themistocles to stay at Salamis to fight the Persians as it was the advantageous location for the battle - “Eurybiades changed his determination; principally” - Eurybiades was against chasing the Persians after their victory at Salamis as it forced Xerxes to stay in greece Pausanius - Fought and led the Greek forces during the Battle of Platea - Noted that greek unity during this time was extremely fragile with members of their force fiercely independent and jealous of each other as a result of being from multiple states - Held his army together despite the logistical problems of lack of supplies and constant attacks on their supply line - Without Pausanius, the greeks would have lost and the outcome of the Persian wars would’ve been changed drastically - Snake pillar erected at the battle which had the names of the Greek states who fought in honour of their victory against overwhelming odds and difficulties Reasons for Greek Victory and Persian Defeat Reasons for Greek Victory - Superior tactics - Greek Unity as if it collapsed the persians would have won - Heavily armoured which meant they could hold positions more easily - High morale and motivated to fight for a common cause to defend Greece - Previous knowledge of the terrain and weather - Chose to fight in enclosed spaces and choke points which eliminated the persians numerical advantage - The Greeks accepted Spartan leadership in the navy and on land - Athens willing to accept spartan naval leadership at the time - Kykloc tactic Reasons for Persian defeat - Used the same tactics as in the first persian war - Lightly armoured - Persian forces were from all different parts of the empire which resulted in confusion, language barriers and different tactics - Relied on land and sea tactics where they would both fight next to each other, with the navy gone after Salamis this resulted in Persia never gaining navy superiority ever again - Incompetent command as Xerxes thought he could win overwhelming numbers and his arrogance - Ambition, recklessness and yearning for glory on Mardonius’s part Invasion of 480-479 BC Battles of Thermopylae/ Artemisium , Salamais, Plataea and Mycale - Thermopylae/Artemisium, Thermopylae a land fought battle Greeks led by Leonidas in narrow pass to deal with waves of Persians resulted in Greek loss but humiliation for Persians increasing Greek morale - Artimisuim a naval battle in poor conditions with no real winner as greeks retreated but Persian lost half their fleet - Was a huge moral boost for the Greeks as they saw they were able to actually fence off the overwhelming Persian fleet - The significance of the battle can be seen in Thermopylae inscription “ four thousand here from Pelpos against 3 mil once did stand epitaph to the Spartans go tell the traveller passing by that here obedient to our laws we lie” 2007 Zack Snyder 300 movie shows Persian forces and monstrous and an enormous force - HIGHLY EXAGGERATED BUT SHOWS HOW GREEKS VIEWED PERSIAN FORCES AND THE ABILITY TO DEFEND AGAINST THEM WOULD'VE BEEN A HUGE MORALE BOOST. - Allowed for the evacuation of Athens by holding off Persian both by land and sea - In the Themistocles decree talks of women and children being evacuated to safety and that “all Athenians and foreigners of military age are to embark on the 200 ships to defend against the barbarians for the sake of their own freedom and the rest of Greece - Herodotus also accounts for a combined land and sea defence at Artemisium and Thermopylae - Showed where Greeks were weak in narrow passageways - The main ways Greece could win the battle was due to Leonidas moving his troops from Thesally to Thermoyaple - However still was a loss for the Greeks and allowed for the Persians to push through Greece Herodotus: “They reached Attica and were destroying all of it by fire.The army with Xerxes had made its way through Boeotia and burnt the city of the Thespians, who had abandoned it. Now the army had come to Athens and was devastating everything there. The army burnt Thespia and Plataea” Athens after the battle was sacked by the Persians and Xerxes revenge for his father was taken M.dandamaev “According to Dio Chrysotosmos “ the persians had defeated the Spartans at Thermopylae and destroyed the city of Athens enslaving all who could not escape… Athens was sacked twice the Eretrians were taken away in captivity “ - Also was not just as result of Greek actions and solely cannot be as a result of the success of Leonidas the Persian fleet on the way to Salamis was weakened at Euboea Herodotus talks of Persian fleet caught in storm at Euboea “the Persian power might be more equally matched with the Greek” Battle of Salamis - The battle of Salamis was a navy battle fought between the Greeks and Persians which the Greeks were able to win due to the efforts of Themistocles plan to ambush the Persian fleet in narrow passageways and used periplus to ram the Persians - Turning point of the war as it destroyed vast numbers of ships and prevented the land and sea attack developed from the Persians as the remaining navy ships were needed for supplies and transporting cavalry. Artemisia I of Caria: “their men are as much stronger by sea than yours if you make haste to fight at once on sea, I fear lest your fleet take some hurt and thereby harm your army likewise “Herodotus the greater part of the Persian fleet suffered severely in the battle” AND J.M Cook “Xerxes was in serious difficulties without the fleet the Peloponnese could not be conquered”. - As the battle was again a shock win for the Greeks led to more motivation for the Greeks as they easily damaged “Aeschulyus accounts for the Persian court's reaction to Salmais ``how could the puny Greeks defeat the mighty Persian force and the reply is that they have a vein of silver in their soil”. - Demonstrated the key leadership of Themistocles ability and that Greeks was more tactically smarter then Persians - “Herodotus accounts for Themistocles plans to set up in Salamis as it is a narrow passageways and then stating how they were able to ambush and ram the Persian fleet “the greek fleet worked together while the Persians had lost formation and where no longer fighting for any plan. - However negatives of Salamis as it did not entirely destroyed the Persian invasion - However the efforts at Salamis did now put an end to the war and the Persain forces still stood strong in North Greece J.M Cook, “ but to abandoned his Greek conquests would be an admission of defeat and failure to equal his predecessors” The Persian fleet was not entirely destroyed and still was used to maintain Persian control and supply their troops Peter Green: “Xerxes dispatch of the fleet could also protect the Hellespont ledge and maintain the line of communication” R.Sealy: “the fleet was moved to Samos to keep watch of the Ionian coast in case of new rebellions after Salamis”. Battle of Plataea - The battle of Plataea was a long drawn out battle with issues over supplies of food and water during this battle due to Pausaniasu role the Greeks were able to keep united and defeat the Persians in particular general Mardonius - The battle was a great victory for the Greeks because it resulted in a mass slaughter of Persians and the death of Mardonius a key figure in the Persian forces “Herodotus accounts for the Greeks breaking through the Persian barricade to slaughter weak armoured Persians and with the death of Mardonius the remader Persians yielded or took flight” - The Greeks ability to hold of a large Persian force of cavalry while facing food and water shortages was of an amazing victory for Greeks g - J.Fine talks of Plateau and the threat of Persian cavalry and men and the victory as a “the finest victory” - Role of Pausania in the battle was a demonstration of the way the Greeks had won the war keeping all greeks united throughout a long drawn out battle - “Serpent column dedicated to Apollo after Pletea from 31 Greek city states. Battle of Mycale - Shortly after Plateau fleets of Greek ships for the first time went on the offensive against the Persians aiming to destroy their fleets headquarters which resulted in an onslaught of the Persians and repulsed them from mainland Greece - This battle was significant in that it inevitably ended the Greek wars in Persia as the Greeks were able to attack and defeat Persian forces - Herodotus: “The Greek fleet sailed to Mycale and there landed on the shore. They met the Persians, and there they fought and won a great victory." - Peter Green The Battle of Mycale was pivotal, as it marked the beginning of the end for Persian ambitions in Greece. - The victory resulted in the Agean sea opening up for the Greeks allowing them not only to prevent further Persian invasion but also for trade - Cambridge ancient history: “the twin victories of Plataea and Mycale in 479 BCE effectively dismantled Persian power in the Aegean and restored Greek confidence." Although victorias in taking back Ionaian Greek states and defending mainland they did have issues in that they could not maintain control of Ionia due to political issues between Sparta and Athens George Cackwell: "Through a combination of military pressure and strategic alliances, the Persians were able to reassert their influence in Ionia, challenging the fragile Greek unity." Persian Imperialism and Ionian Revolt Persian Imperialism - Lands under Persia forced to pay taxes, supplies and troops during the war - Persian kings felt pressure to always expand their empire which meant they were the aggressors during battles - “Both Greeks and Persians were aware of the inevitability of a future conflict” - Lands under persia were mostly allowed to operate how they did previously, but were forced to pay tribute when asked - Revolts happened as a result of those unhappy with persian occupation and being subjects - Was aware of the economic and strategic potential of Greece when planning the invasion - “They do not all have the same intent and they will no longer oppose you” Xerxes - Ionian Revolt - Ionians hated being part of subjects of the persians and hated the yearly tributes - Ionia was controlled by puppet rulers - Held good relationships with Athens and as a result of hearing of their revolution, sent over ships to assist - As Persia faced a near disaster campaign at Scythian this gave the Ionians a lot of hope for the revolution - Ionians were led by Aristagoras Delian league into Athenian Empire - Delian league consisted of many Greek states who formed an alliance in which Athens was later the leader - Coinage decree which was the enforcement of athenian currency - Athens insisted on unfair and taxing obligations from the other states within the league - Any enemy of Athens was an enemy of the league was used and the contract was sealed by iron dropped to the bottom of the ocean - As the league grew, states who attempted to succeed from it were forced into submission and forced to rejoin  - Treasury of the Delian league was moved to Athens which in turn, solidified their power as they grew to be the strongest state - As Thasos attempted to succeed they lost horribly and were forced to pay large taxes to Athens, surrender half its claim and give up its navy. - No state was allowed to leave the Delian League - As Athens signed the peace with Persia, their borders expanded with Persian forces not allowed to be within 3 days march and their navy avoiding Athens TOPIC 3: Personality Study: Xerxes Image and Representations of Xerxes - Xerxes is often depicted as above his subjects, either shown sitting on a throne and his feet not touching the ground with Aphuramasda looking over him - Depicted as larger than his subjects and “King of Kings” which showcase his might and his influence all over Persia - Portrayed as an administrative king rather than a conqueror and a warrior - supported by inscriptions found in Persepolis cylinder’s emphasising his control and level-headedness “I am not hot tempered, I hold firm control” Ancient vs Modern Views and Perspectives Ancient views: - Herodotus portrays Xerxes as arrogant, brutal and ruthless as demonstrated by his execution of engineers and harsh punishments - Aeschylus portrays Xerxes as weak and impetuous who due to rash decision making and impatience led to the humiliation and the failure of the persian campaign on Greece Modern views: - Dandamaev credits Xerxes for the construction of Persepolis - O’Neil views Xerxes as a weak ruler more interested in the administrative and construction side of ruling then military campaigns - Perspective of Xerxes military prowess varies, with some viewing him as a great strategist and others labelling him as a failure - Assessments for Xerxes empire range from viewing it as it greatest during his reign to considering him unfit for his high position Xerxes sources: XERXES DEPICTIONS AND HOW HE WAS VIEWED - Xerxes has been depicted in multiple murals as above all his subjects whether that being held up by the Thorne while in meetings and his feet not touching same ground or being paraded around - “I am Xerxes, the great king,king of all countries and all languages, king of this great and wide world” - Daiva inscription - “May Ahuramasda preserve me. What has been build by me and my father ” - Many depictions of Xerxes has the god Aphuramasda watching over him which shows how his family line was chosen by Aphuramasda and are the rightful leaders of the Persian Empire - Going against Xerxes was like going against your religion as he was chosen by Aphuramasda to lead the persians - Xerxes death has been widely speculated to be an inside job as he was in his room at the time of his death - Due to instability as a result of the war against Greece and the famine this led to 100 nobles being fired which in the common people’s eyes was viewed as positive but was suspected to be the catalyst of the assasination plot INSTABILITY AND HIS ASSASINATION: - “Artabanus schemed to kill Xerxes with Aspametres (Eunuch), blaming Prince Darius for the death of Xerxes. Artaxerxes kills him. Hystaspes revolts in response to hearing Artaxerxes according to Ctesias'' - “Artabanus schemes with Mithridates (Eunuch) with Hystaspes out of the country according to Diosciulus” - Following his death political instability continued and was even more fragile than before \ - For the two sources, the differences noted are the different name changes and in Diosciulus’s interpretation Hystaspes was out of country RELIGIOUS POLICY “Xerxes was a man who made no distinctions between what is sacred and what is secular, one who burned and tore down statues of false gods” - The Daeva inscription shows that he was a religious reformer and had no tolerance for other religions - Strengthening the cult of Aphuramasda was essential to impacting his support and reign as king - “By the will of Ahmuramasda” - This solidifies Xerxes rule and that he has been chosen by Aphuramasda - “Allowed them to find rest from their exhaustion, their servitude”  - “ the Persian offerings were intended to procure favours of Greek gods” - Tolerance could have been served a political purpose to gain support of his diverse empire Building Policy “Xerxes was a weak ruler with little interest in, or aptitude for, military affairs who much preferred building activities” “Archaemid art reached the peak of his reign” - Vistevens “A new version of hierarchical order and kingship on earth” - M Cool Root - Building is important as it portrays him as ruler of persia, - Buildings don’t make him weak - Persepolis was monumental and had a mixture of egyptian and greek cultures - Stonemasons and builders all across the empire were sent to build and help Persepolis’s construction - Xerxes contributed the most to the construction in Persepolis PERSIAN EMPIRE: STILL APART OF XERXES!! Military Structure: Structure of the Myriad: - Largest division in the military was referred to the greeks as myriad or immortals - King's personal guard and were split into ten regiments with 1000 people each - Military formation consisted of lines of spearmens with shields in front of the archers - Persian military consisted of nobles, peasants and different ethnicities all across the persian empire Cavalry: - In the early years of the empire, building the cavalry was one of the most important additions - Elite cavalry were called Medes - By the time of the persian wars, the cavalry included the bactrians, sagartians, cissians and indians with camel units attached as well Navy - Persia had no navy as it was a landlocked country - They used navys from conquered nations as opposed to building their own navy which also included their crews but were all led by persians - The core of the navy force was the egyptians, phoenicians and ionians Political Structure Overview of Political Structure Impact of Political Structure on society - Was known as the Achaemenid - The political administrative structure empire with efficient democratic and of Persia was divided into satrapies oligarchy based system which where the king exercised his power combined the centralization of power through the satrapy system. However, and the decentralisation of they were not imposed, but worked administration alongside those of the subject nations - Ruled by the Achaemenid monarch which allowed them to keep their (XERXES) who was the absolute ruler traditions and way of life, but had to of the empire, with all political, legal pay tributes and military rule centred on the king - This helped vastly in keeping the - Successors were usually the first born Persian empire stable son of the Monarch which caused - Persian kings valued certain people strong royal heritage namely the Aryan race which included - Satrapies were governors of specific the kings, his nobles, priests warriors cities or regions appointed by the and scribes and even peasants Monarchy to ensure that they paid - The rest were names “slaves of the their tributes and to quell any great king” and were treated as such rebellions / uprising - Roaming officials called “the eyes and ears of the king” checked progress on the persian law and that edicts were enacted throughout the empire - Archaemenid kings claimed to be chosen by the god, Aphuramasda and saw themselves as morally upright individuals and did not see themselves as divine beings but under the guidance of them Persian Court Hierarchy 1. The king / monarch 2. Royal princes, nobles including persians, medes and non-persians 3. King bow bearer, king spear bearer, members of the royal family or high courtiers 4. Important non persians (Demaratus and Themistocles) 5. Eunuchs, women,royal wives, princesses Social Structure: - The persian social structure was hierarchical like a pyramid (listed above) - Persian empire was divided into satrapies managing themselves and paying tax to the persian king - Opinions of women in persia were neither respected nor valued, however royal women held great power - Both girls and boys got education which focused on literature, ethics and history - Social practices included, hunting, and recreation where nobles engaged in hunting expedition chariot races and other recreational activities Concept of Kingship - A quality king in persia consisted of great religious policy, administration of the empire, building programs, warfare and expansion of the empire, legitimacy and public image - Urbanization transformed Persia, expanding it and the expansion of banks and trade led to growth in the merchant class Religion in the Empire - The influences that shaped Persian religion can be traced back to practices and beliefs that different Aryan people settled on the Iranian plateau with Ahuramasda being the most important god. - Performed sacrifices and conducts which were done by priests named Magi - Ethical concepts and the duality between good and evil were introduced into religion largely due to the teachings of Zoroaster, a prophet - Official religion for Persia became Zoroastrianism - Persian empire allowed their subject states to maintain their own religious status to some extent  TOPIC 4: Ancient Sparta The issue of Lycurgus and the Great Rhetra - During the 8th to 6th century many Greek cities looked to colonise and solve internal growing problems such as food shortages and overpopulation. Sparta did not take this patch to solve its internal problems and instead took control of Laconian Messenia and introduced a new form of laws known as eumonia. - The Spartan word associated with Lycurgus was sacred. - Lycurgus is credited with giving the Spartans a constitution which was divinely inspired, The Great Rhetra reflected the oral traditions of the Spartans. - The Greek historian Polybius praised the Spartans for having a mixed constitution composed of the best elements; kingship, oligarchy and democracy. - Helots are slaves who do jobs such as cooking, farming and vastly outnumber the Spartans. - Perioikoi are subjugated people who are metalworkers, woodworkers and shipbuilders and essentially make products. Eumonia (Good Order) Economic System Political System Social System - Helot / perioikoi labour freed - Assembly - State ethos taught and Spartiaites to be full time - Ephorate maintained through: soldiers - Dual king - Agoge (Education System) - Citizens do not work and - Syssitia (Mess Hall) discouraged from pursuing - Hoplite training and service luxury Two Perspectives of Sparta “Barrack Sparta” - Traditional view of Sparta as a city state which transitioned from a normal city to a military state to ensure control of its enslaved population “Swinging Sparta” - Challenges and modifications to traditional views which have been drawn from written evidence and archaeological finds to support their argument. “...The immediate sequel to the second Messenian War was not austerity but a new wave of luxury and artistic achievement, seen in the poems of Alcam and in the exuberance of Laconia artefacts and in ivory and bronze. The succession of Olympic victories continued, foreign conquests grew wider and the expert of pottery and storage vessels began” - Fitzhardinge Dual Kingship and their roles: - Rules of succession - The first born son after the father became King meaning the eldest son of a king might not necessarily be first in line, if there was no son it was passed to the nearest kinsman. Military role of the kings - One king had to stay in Sparta whilst the other fought in battles. - According to Herodotus they originally had power to declare war but by the 5th and 4th centuries they had lost this to the assembly. - They had 100 strong personal bodyguards and did not have to train like other citizens. - On campaigns they were the last to retreat and the first to advance. - Had unlimited decisions over troops in the army and was responsible for conducting campaigns, (if misconduct, king punished). Civil and judicial role of kings - By the end of the 5th century kings had been limited in jurisdiction except matters such as public roads, supervision of marriage and adoption of children - They could not make laws but could propose them - Nominal heads of state and nominated the men who entertained foreign visitors Religious role - Were chief priests of Zeus Lacedaemon and Zeus Uranus - Responsible for safe keeping the oracles and selected delegates to the Delphi - Received the hides of animals offered in sacrifice and they made the first ceremonial libation - Held office for as long as they maintained the pleasure of the gods and were expected to sacrifice to the gods before a battle, with the flame being carried into battle Kings Limitations As seen above, they were not absolute monarchs and their powers were limited by several legalities and mechanisms although they had power to make war or peace then, discussions had to be ratified by the ecclesia. On occasions they did not agree to their recommendations. Dual kingship meant that each monarch could be checked on behaviour within battle and during peacetime by he ephors who would report back on the king which could lead to prosecution and punishment for the kings. - Kings weren’t above the law and were held accountable by the other parts of the Spartan political system to prevent them from receiving too much power Dual Kingship Rights and Privileges Roles, Rights and Privileges - Xenophon - Should perform all the public sacrifices on the city’s behalf - Should lead the army wherever the city dispatches it - Which to consult the gods at anytime the need arises - To rule according to the city’s established laws - Taking part of the animals sacrificed - Selected-land in many of the periokoic communities - Permitted a king to take a piglet from every sow’s little - Pool near his residence supplies plenty of water - The city to keep the king’s position unshaken so long as he abides his oath BECAUSE/BUT/SO - Dual kingship was beneficial to Sparta because it prevented one king from gaining too much power and influence in the Monarchy. - Dual kingship was beneficial to Sparta but Spartan’s political system was a combination of a Monarchy, Oligarchy and a Democracy which all co-existed working with one another. - Dual kingship was beneficial to Sparta so they could prevent Dictatorships and allow the people leading Sparta to not have full control and also make decisions to benefit Sparta. The Ephorate - Democratically elected spartans who were made to ensure kings did not gain too much power and keep them in check - Administrative power of the state was in the hands of 5 ephors who as well as summoning and presiding over the Council of Elders - Could only hold office for a year before being replaced and could never hold the position again, were also not above the law - Only spartans could become Ephors The Gerousia - Elected by acclamation - candidates paraded and cheer for greatest cheers meant election - Supposed to balance government so neither tyranny or democracy could become too powerful Sources Plutarch, on Plato on the origins of the Gerousia: But now by placing the office of the Elders in the middle as a kind of ballast, and thus striking a balance, it found the safest arrangement and organization, with the twenty-eight elders always siding with the kings when it was a matter of resisting democracy, yet in turn reinforcing the people against the development of tyranny Note: Ballast means giving stability to a ship Aristotle: It might be debated whether they should be continued judges for life and so determine matters of the greatest importance, since the mind has its old age as well as the body…it is known that the members of that body have been guilty of both bribery and partiality in many public affairs Plutarch, on Sparta: …whenever an elder died his place should be taken by a man over sixty whose merits were regarded as most outstanding… The selection was made in the following way. The assembly gathered and picked men were shut up in the nearby building where they could neither see out nor be seen, but could only hear the shouts of those in the assembly. For in this instance as in others, it was by shouting that they decided between the competitors … Whoever was met with the most shouting, and the loudest, was the man declared elected The Ekklesia - Spartan assembly which consisted of all males over the age of 30 Role of the Ekkles - Had the power to declare war and treaties Spartan social structure: The Spartiates (homoioi) were supposedly equal - all loyal to the survival and glory of Sparta. Not everyone could be a part of this group - those that had benefits but also obligations and responsibilities. Their purpose was to maintain supremacy of the Spartans over the large helot population. Land tenure: - Kleros was the name of the parcel of land provided by the state to Spartiate citizens - Supposedly all spartiates no matter their status had an equal allotment of land so there was no inequality. Practically they did exist Sysstia: The compulsory mess hall where Spariates ate, together every night rather than their family. Must contribute food from your land and didn’t eat or drink to abundance There were always rich and poor spartans despite the allotment of land This happened because: - Some spartans had land which was their personal property. They also had a clears allocated them by the state which unlike clears, personal property could be given away or left by will - Since Spartan women could inherit and own property some homoioi saw a way of getting property by marrying an heiress with a large dowry - Although the state could not take allotment away from the homoioi it could not guarantee that the land was effectively managed - As spartiate numbers declined there was more land held by the state which led to opportunities for a spartan to increase his property by bribing the ephors to divert unassigned land to him - In the fourth century by the end when the Spartan system was in decline, a law passed allowing Spartans to sell or dispose of their clears anyway they wanted Spartiate Sources Plutarch: Plutarch on Sparta: “to pool all the land and redistribute it afresh… the same amount of property and there would be no distinction of inequality between individuals” Xenophon: “living at home, was responsible for taking most things too easily and was assigned a ration of corn so that they could neither be forged nor hungry. But they had many additional foods supplied from hunting expeditions” Inferiors: In Spartan society there was a group referred to as inferiors who are outside of the social structure and included - Spartan homoioi who lost their citizenship rights - Illegitimate offspring of Spartan males and helot females - Helots specially chosen as foster-brothers of the Spartan boys - Helots given their freedom for outstanding service to Sparta in war - Those who had lost citizenship through cowardice in war The role of the inferiors appeared to promote complete loyalty to Sparta Plutarch quotes describing Spartiate’s attitudes towards men: “Damtarus who broke the laws was killed by his mother - She a spartan lady. He a spartan youth” “Another woman when her sons fled from battle and reacher her said, In making your escape, vile slaves, where is it you’ve come to” Criminal offences in Sparta resulted in a loss of privileges State issues a decree against these man and they were: - Were forced to wear special clothing and go unshaven - Lost all their political rights - Avoided by everyone, ate and exercised alone - Had little chance of finding a wife for themselves or a husband for their daughters The Perioikoi - Roughly translates to dwellers around - Tradies of Sparta who build and make weaponry - Made the economy run and could be called to fight - Ancient sources indicate that perioikoi were ‘obligated to submit without question to Sparta direction in foreign policy” - Cartledge 1979) - “There is nothing to suggest that they treated the periocei with more than a haughty roughness” - H Mitchell The Helots - Government owned slaves so the Spartiates could focus on fighting - Had no legal or political rights and ultimately provided the agricultural and domestic work for Spartiates - They were crucial for the way of life of the Spartiates - Alloted to a piece of land and do the agricultural labour for the Spartiate family that lives on it - Most decisions and policies were made around the helots - Helots had the right to religious practices and sometimes served as soldiers in battle - Could be called to serve in the army - “It would have been folly to send on campaign seven unarmed men with every man, if the unarmed men hates him” - Raphael Sealy Methods of control for helots - The Krypteia (secret police force) The Kleroi and syssitia: helots were divided among different plots of land, working to provide the common mess - Military service and secret massacre - Keeping the helots busy (eg if they do not make enough food for their quota, their families don’t get food because the first crops are given to the Spartiate to the syssitia) Women in Sparta - Had more freedom than Athenian women and lived a more open life with no political rights - Primary role was to produce children and to educate them about spartan values - Were active and participated in sports and were expected to be fit and strong - A woman who died during childbirth had the right to have a marked grave, same as men who died in combat Spartan Army - Sent to the Agoge as children and was the spartan school which focused on education, physical fitness, and obedience to authority - Spartan Army consisted of Spartans, Perioikoi, and helots - Used the Phalanx formation which was a wall of spears and shields overlapping each other, which provided cover and defence against enemies - It was considered a great honour to serve in the frontlines of the army Resources: Land: - Sparta was never interested in expanding their land, kept to themselves and had the best food producing land - Foods like vegetables and fruit were stable and grew in all areas but the highest of mountains - Water flowing from Mt Taygetus provided the necessary irrigation for fruit trees, olive groves and barley crops Spartan Technology - Three major materials were clay, iron and bronze and made weapons, armour and pottery - Periokoi make all the equipment, being dictated by the Spartiates - Periokoi were the main pottery makers, but evidence has shown that Spartiates also had pottery and made some as hobbies Gods and Goddesses and Religion - Artemis is the goddess of the hunt and nature, made sure animals were present, food was plentiful and that - Orthia was a very old god and goddess that has been amalgamated to become Artemis Orthia - At the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia, archaeology evidence of figurines of the Artermis Orthia were offered to make sure that healthy spartans were born - Apollo was depicted with a spear instead of a bow, as it was seen as a cowards weapon Death and Burial - Only spartan people who had marked graves were men who died in battle or women in childbirth. All others were buried in unmarked graves within the city - Soldiers were buried in their red cloaks and covered in olive leaves - After 12 days their grief had to end and a sacrifice was made to the god Demeter - Spartan Kings had a statue made for them if they died in war, with no elections or meetings for 10 days, which were spent in mourning Spartan Festivals - The Karneia was a festival which celebrated the origin of Sparta and worshipped the god Apollo, with music being a key part of the festival - The gymnopaedia was an annual five day festival which involved dancing, gymnastic displays, and was connected to Apollo, thanking the gods for their military success - The Hyakinthia was named after Hyakinthos, who was a lover of Apollo, had three stages which went from grief, meaning no wreaths were worn, no foods except special funereal foods, The second stage Spartan culture and Architecture - Sparta went through a significant change, with the Lycurgan reforms which led to sparta being what it is currently - Sparta’s culture has evolved - Trade and imports between africa and sparta occured, shown by evidence of clay pots which were buried next to a tribe leader, which had inscriptions from Sparta - Cultural stagnation had been detected by the end of the 6th Century BC followed by a loss of quality and a disappearance of production in the 5th century BC - Architecture was nice but not as sophisticated as Athens with Sparta being simple Temple of Athenia Chalkioikos - Only the footprint of the building has survived with small tile fragments from the building - Was covered in bronze and had scenes of mythology being depicted according to Pausanius Temple of Artemis Orthia - Was a small structure which was dated to 700 BC and was 4.5 metres wide, being made of bricks, wood and a stone foundation - A raised dias was found inside the temple where an ancient image of the goddess was placed - The second temple had solid foundation and were used in successive rebuilding, remodelling right down into roman times - Stone that surmounted a column and a piece of column with 20 carved flutings around it, with painted stone lion ornaments found The Menelaion - Was a temple dedicated to Menelaos and Helen which was a small but monumental building, which was the earliest of it’s kind. It had a pedimental roof and was tiled with terracotta - Was a Heroons (Hero shrine) Alcman and Tyrtaeus Greek Writers - and views of Sparta: Herodotus - From Asia-minor makes him ‘Athenocetric’ meaning his writings depict views more favourable to athenians and Athens - Provides stories on both early sparta and narratives within three generations in his own time Thucydides - Fought in the peloponnesian war and exiled from athens - Main theme is long-drawn out conflict between athens and sparta Xenephon - Fought alongside the Persian king Cyrus the younger - Expert in the peloponnesian war - Provides a simple and uncritical look at Spartan institutions, believes that Spartan supremacy was inevitable Aristotle - One of the biggest names in Greek philosophy - Did not have a high view of the spartan system - Condemns women specifically that they came to own 40% of the Spartan land Pausanias - NOT the same one from the persian wars - Traveller/ travelling historian - Provides valuable information about the topography and ruins that existed in sparta - Fairly objective accounts Plutarch - Tries to use documents from rome but this cannot be confirmed or denied - Biographical essays are mainly moral in purpose - He was a ride reader and used sources that are not available today - Modern writers have found flaws in his account Leisure activities Athletics: - Participation in athletics was a favoured leisure activity - Its thought that spartans were the first to play sports fully naked also believed to be the first to introduce the idea of anointing their bodies with oil - Running, discus, javelin, jumping, and wrestling - The prowess of athletes was much respected - Spartan training was infamous for being rigorous and spartans were famous for running - Girls practised athletics and were known for running and jumping Hunting: - One of the most popular leisure activities was hunting - For those without a horse it was possible to chase after hares on foot and catch them with the aid of dogs and helots with nets - deer could also similarly be pursued on food and stalked and killed - Lakonian hounds, which probably had parts of wolf in them were esteemed throughout greece as hunting dogs - Spartans covered much distance on horseback to get to the hunting spot but the actual hunting was done up close and on foot - Boar hunting was very difficult and - Xenephone believed that hunting made a man's body healthy; improved eyesight etc - The stealth of the young boys who were encouraged to steal food was now developed into the stealth of the hunter Equestrian Sports: - Shrine dedicated to ‘horse breeding poseidon’ - Depictions of horses and horse riders appear on Lakonian painted pottery - It was a compliment to compare a beautiful girl to a ‘fine and frisky mare’ - Horses are decorated with bridal ornaments made of bronze and ivory - We can assume horse breeding was confined to weather spartans - Women rode chariots around sparta in the Hyakinthia - This is not a leisure activity that many people were taking part in Cockfighting and Boar Fighting - A popular leisure activity for many greeks, prize roosters were kept by Greeks - Strong gamebirds that were aggressive were symbolic of the maleness that was much valued in Spartan society - There is some indication that immature wild boars were raised in captivity and matched against one another in a similar fashion - Pausanias tells us that the area known as the Plane-trees in Sparta where adolescents divided into two teams fought one another in a brutal fashion, before this contest each team had to fight a young boar - The boars had been hand-reared apparently for contests such as this. The outcome of the boar-fight was taken as an omen that would indicate the struggle of the teams of boys Banquets - One of the spartan leisure activities mentioned by Plutarch - This festival mentioned is the ‘Symposion’ that was usually associated with religious occasions - At Sparta there was a prohibition of drunkenness and ‘an ideal, at least, of sober celebration’ Marriage Customs: - The display of gymnastics naked was an opportunity for males to survey the available women if they were thinking of choosing a bride - Spartan males probably married in their 20’s and the brides would have been teens Abduction of the Bride: -