SOC100 Fall'24: The Sociology of Education Lecture Notes PDF

Not on the test. The Sociology of Education SOC100: Intro to Sociology Dr. Mitch McIvor September 11, 2024 1  Not on the test. Do yo...

Not on the test. The Sociology of Education SOC100: Intro to Sociology Dr. Mitch McIvor September 11, 2024 1  Not on the test. Do you all remember this Drake Album? With Drake sitting on the tower? 2  Not on the test. Ever heard of the Giant Inflatable Duck controversy? 3  Not on the test. Views From the Duck The Sociology of Education SOC100: Intro to Sociology Dr. Mitch McIvor September 11, 2024 4  Not on the Where We Are Now test. We’re Here Tutorial 1 runs this week Debate Paper 1 Due in 2 Weeks *Remember that this is optional but a good idea if you want time to re-submit another paper for a better grade. *Please also remember that everyone has a no- questions-asked grace period of 7 days from the deadline to submit without penalty. 5  House Keeping- Tutorial Activities Not on the test. Tutorial 1 is already running for this week! Remember that you need to bring an electronic device to tutorials (smartphone, ipad, tablet, laptop, something that can connect to the internet) Please Note: You will see a tutorial activity quiz for each of the tutorial leaders/teachers on Quercus. You will, however, only get a grade for your tutorial. The rest will show as missing and that’s 100% OK and how it should be. Next week’s is tutorial #2 where you will learn more about how to succeed on the paper. I want to emphasize that this course is a Welcoming, Respectful, & Inclusive Space. We all want to be comfortable when we learn so let’s remember these values in class and in tutorial because we all play a role in our learning/class community, and we all contribute to how comfortable everyone feels. 6  Not on the House Keeping- Debate Paper test. Please note that the debate paper resources are available on our Quercus course homepage as well as under the modules tab. This includes: debate paper instructions (17 pages of guidelines, tips, and FAQs), a template (to show you what the paper should look like), the actual rubric we use to grade your papers and a general writing guide with more tips for university writing; This is in addition to the two tutorials that focus on the paper. Every year we get re-grade requests where students argue they didn’t know to do things we deducted points for. And every year we point directly to where these things were said in the above resources. It is YOUR responsibility to review these documents, if you do then you’re paper will receive a much higher grade, if you don’t then expect deductions. 7  Not on the House Keeping- AM Quizzes test. AM Quiz 1 which tests your knowledge of the course syllabus is still open and is due by the start of Lecture 4 (Weds, Sept.25 by 12:10pm) AM Quiz #2, which tests your knowledge of the Assigned Material for this lecture (Lecture 2) was available since last Wednesday and was due when this class began at 12:10pm. Remember that the final exam will replace any AM Quiz that you miss as well as any AM Quiz grade that it is higher than when we calculate grades at the end of the semester. This happens automatically, no need to email or request it. AM Quiz #3, opens after class and is due by the start of next week’s lecture (i.e. by 12:10pm on Sept.18). 8  Not on the test. When you have SOC100 questions Steps to take when you have questions: 1. Check the syllabus 2. Check the FAQ pages on Quercus 3. Check the relevant discussion boards 4. Post your question to the relevant discussion board (if it is a general question/not specific to you). 5. Bring your questions to lecture or attend office hours. 6. If you’ve done the above, your question is personal/specific to you, and/or you’re unable to attend office hours, then send an email to [email protected] (remember all course emails need to go to this email address)  Not on the COMPLETELY NOT SCARY test. OFFICE HOURS REMINDER Any questions or concerns feel free to come to my office hour on Mondays (4:15-5pm), Thursdays (12:30-1:15), and Fridays (3:15-4pm). 10  Not on the test. Finishing Lecture 1 Part 3: Bias  Not on the test. Introductions Who I am (Professor McIvor) Where I’m from 13  Understanding Bias So why did I introduce myself? We are all biased. This bias is often unconscious and is unavoidable. Remember that science (of which Sociology is a part) relies on being objective, which is the opposite of being biased. Being objective is defined as basing conclusions on empirically verifiable facts collected with sound scientific principles rather than personal opinions, feelings, preferences, or experiences. And there are many types of bias that we must be aware of. 14  Understanding Bias Question: Is your experience of the world the truth? A major factor in people not understanding others’ experiences is holding a core believe that your experience is the truth. This neglects how not everyone gets the same experience (the world treats us differently), and how not all of us experience things the same (our circumstances change experiences). When people get to experience a different social position (race, gender, etc.) they report a massive change in world view. 15  Understanding Bias 1. Social location bias. An individual's social location is defined as the combination of factors including gender, race, social class, age, ability, religion, sexual orientation, geographic location, and many more. Social location is particular to each individual; that is, social location is never the exact same for any two individuals.” (NCFR, 2019) People prefer first-hand knowledge or experience to build beliefs on (for what is more believable than things you personally see, hear, and experience with your own senses?). But this is problematic because our social location influences what experiences we have in the world (including what we experience and how we experience it). For example, your experience in a certain setting will be specific and is shaped by your social location. 16  Understanding Bias 1. Social location bias. Personal experience is also referred to as Anecdotal evidence. In other words, “evidence in the form of stories that people tell about what has happened to them” (Merriam- Webster, 2022). To use anecdotal evidence to understand the world around you is to engage in social location bias. When you do this, you are not explaining or understanding the world, you are explaining or understanding YOUR world or your experience of the world. An easy example of this is a Caucasian person stating that racism doesn’t exist because they don’t personally experience it happening in their day-to-day lives. Or someone getting an asymptomatic case of COVID and deciding that it is, therefore, not a big deal worth all the government precautions being taken (or the reverse, someone has a loved one die from COVID and decides anyone against strict precautions is incompetent and dangerous). 17  Understanding Bias 1. Social location bias. Now this type of bias may seem obvious and easy to avoid. But your social location unconsciously affects all of your decisions and perceptions. For example, what problems you find interesting or important, what subjects you choose to study, what profession you want to go into are all tied to your social location and experiences. They are all biased in this way. I studied student debt for my Ph.D dissertation because I come from a working-class background, I took a lot of debt in order to attend university, and it was stressing me out. So I wanted to know how it affected people in general. If I had a different social location, I would have had other interests and chosen a different dissertation topic. 18  Understanding Bias We are also subject to other types of bias, such as… 2. Confirmation Bias “the tendency to process information by looking for, or interpreting, information that is consistent with one’s existing beliefs” (Brittanica 2022) 19  Understanding Bias We are also subject to other types of bias, such as… 3. Fundamental Attribution Error The tendency to attribute the observed failings of others to internal factors like their disposition, personality, or intelligence. For example: seeing that someone got a poor grade in one of their classes and thinking to yourself that they must be dumb or lazy. 4. Self-Serving Bias Essentially the opposite of fundamental attribution error, i.e. the tendency to attribute one’s own failings to external factors outside of our control rather than taking personal responsibility. For example: getting a poor grade in a course and thinking to yourself that the professor is unfair or incompetent, that external factors negatively affected your performance, etc. 20  Understanding Bias There is even bias as simple as… 5. Optimism Bias The tendency to view things positively while in a good mood. 6. Pessimism Bias The tendency to view things negatively while in in a bad mood. 7. Cultural Bias Perceiving one’s own culture as being normal and, therefore, other cultures as being abnormal. For example, in Italy it is seen as abnormal to move out of your parent's house before you are married whereas in North America it is often seen as unusual to live with your parents past your early twenties. 21  Understanding Bias I introduced myself and mentioned these forms of bias because I want you to know where I am coming from as I’m not immune to bias either. How I teach this class would undoubtedly be different if I had different social traits and a different social location. In other words, how I teach this class is affected by who I am and what my experiences are. I also mention it because one of the first things we need to do in the course is understand where the potential for bias comes in and to understand how we avoid it. We avoid bias by using the scientific method to come to conclusions, by being self-reflective about our biases, by engaging in empathy or imagining ourselves in different social locations, and by thinking critically. This class will emphasize these characteristics. 22  Not on the test. The Sociology of Education SOC100: Intro to Sociology Dr. Mitch McIvor September 11, 2024 23  TODAY’S OUTLINE At the same time that we learn Part 1: Trends in Education about education, we’re going to learn about the key Sociological Part 2: The Function of Education theories. That’s why education is two lectures. Part 3: Class Inequality in Education Part 4: The Experience of Education Part 5: Gender Inequality in Education These we will cover next lecture. Part 6: Racial Inequality in Education 24  Part 1: Trends in Education 25  Historical Trends in Education ❑ Education was once a luxury of upper class individuals who could afford to fund their children’s education themselves. ❑ Yet free and accessible public education has been around for a long time. ❑ In Canada, for example, free and compulsory public schooling was first instroduced in Prince Edward Island in 1852, and by 1873 all but three provinces had public schools funded through taxation (Oreopoulos, 2005). 26  Historical Trends in Education ❑ However, it wasn’t until after WWI that public education rates in Canada and elsewhere in the world started to increase drastically, which is a trend that has only continued since. ❑ For example, in 1950 only 46.4% of 17-20 year olds in Canada had completed Grade 9. ❑ By 1970 this rose to 97.7% (Statistics Canada, 2014). 27  Historical Trends in Education ❑ Another illustration of growing education is how in 1996, the high school graduation rate was 72% in Canada (Statistics Canada, 2014). But by 2006 this number had risen to 87%, and by 2016 it was 90% (Statistics Canada, 2014). 28  Historical Trends in Education ❑ The reasons why public education became compulsory, and why more people found it worthwhile to attend and complete their free public education are many. A few include: 1. It provided training for jobs to help businesses and the economy grow. Source: Robinson, 2019 29  Historical Trends in Education ❑ The reasons why public education became compulsory, and why more people found it worthwhile to attend and complete their free public education are many. A few include: 1. It provided training for jobs to help businesses and the economy grow. 2. It created a population that was more compatible with democracy and functioning government institutions (literacy for example aided in the ability of people to vote, to become educated through news, to engage with the health care system and other aspects of society like filing for unemployment benefits or doing taxes). Source: Robinson, 2019 30  Historical Trends in Education ❑ The reasons why public education became compulsory, and why more people found it worthwhile to attend and complete their free public education are many. A few include: 1. It provided training for jobs to help businesses and the economy grow. 2. It created a population that was more compatible with democracy and functioning government institutions (literacy for example aided in the ability of people to vote, to become educated through news, to engage with the health care system and other aspects of society like unemployment. 3. It helped reduce class differences and class inequality by providing access to education, which prior to this was limited to those who could afford it. Source: Robinson, 2019 31  Historical Trends in Education ❑ Finally, education has also moved beyond compulsory and free elementary and secondary schooling to Post-Secondary Education. A trend that has been increasing drastically in recent years. Source: Statistics Canada, 2018 Source: Statistics Canada, 2023 *Please Note: I will never ask specific numbers/statistics on a test, you just need to know general trends. Same goes for dates (like the date public school started in Canada), I won’t ever ask about these either. 32  Historical Trends in Education ❑ And this trend has not been isolated to Canada. Source: McIvor, 2018 33 Part 2: The Function of Education 34  General Sociological Theories ❑ Throughout the history of sociology, three general trends in theories emerged. ❑ They are: ❑ Later we added: 1. Structural Functionalism 4. Feminism 2. Conflict Theory 5. Critical Race Theory 3. Symbolic Interactionism ❑ Each theory gives us a different way to view a problem by providing different questions to ask and different areas to focus on. I.e., each provides a different perspective. 35  General Sociological Theories ❑ By looking at social issues or problems with each theory/ perspective, we learn to identify and see different aspects of the problem. Therefore, when combined, we achieve a more well-rounded or holistic understanding of the issue. ❑ Today we’ll consider what each perspective tells us about the current state of education. 36  General Sociological Theories Max Weber is considered one of the founders of Sociology and one of its most prominent historical figures. Weber had many brilliant ideas and theories, and one of them is the concept of ‘ideal types’. An ideal type is a mental construct or thought-exercise where you observe things of the same type and try to find their common elements to form an ideal construct based on what they all have in common. The key is letting go of specific differences and details and seeing the commonalities. 37  General Sociological Theories For example, how would we create an ideal type for dogs? Get in groups of 2-4 and think about it for a few minutes. From prior slide: An ideal type is a mental construct or thought- exercise where you observe things of the same type and try to find their common elements to form an ideal construct based on what they all have in common. The key is letting go of specific differences and details and seeing the commonalities. What did you come up with as an ideal type for dogs? 38  General Sociological Theories For example, how would we create an ideal type for dogs? We wouldn’t want to include size or shape because they all differ there. Commonalities are: furry, friendly, affectionate, ability to bark, strong sense of smell and hearing, loyal, and so on. In doing this, we are able to give a description of dogs that fits all or at least most dogs. We do lose detail, which is the problem, but we are able to explain the concept of a dog more easily versus getting into breeds and differences, etc. When we teach you the Sociological theories, we teach you them as ideal types. In other words, there is great diversity within each theoretical branch, but we neglect that and define them by their commonalities (important if you go on in Sociology). 39  Structural Functionalism ❑ One of the three most prominent branches of Sociological theory is STRUCTUAL FUNCTIONALISM. The main points of Structural Functionalism are: 1. Functionalism stresses that human behavior is governed by relatively stable patterns of social relations, or social structures. 2. Functionalism underlines how social structures maintain or undermine social stability. 3. Functionalist theories emphasize that social structures are based mainly on shared values or preferences. 4. Functionalism suggests that re-establishing equilibrium can best solve most social problems. 40  Structural Functionalism ❑ I often find it helpful to think of the social theories as people. And if Structural Functionalism was a person, it would be that older generation type figure. ❑ It’s someone that is very proper (follows society’s rules), that generally sees the good in EVERY part of society (even the bad things). It believes that society is generally working, figuring itself out, and that yes, it is always changing and fixing issues, but it generally is good at restoring stability or balance. ❑ So it’s a view of the world that see’s society as this relatively stable set- up that is based on known structures and relationship patterns that we can understand, study, and see the interconnections between. 41  Structural Functionalism ❑ In terms of how it analyzes issues then: You look at society as different parts and try to identify the relationships between them (how one part leads into and affects other parts). If there are problems, you figure out what is causing them by taking a holistic and kind-of big picture perspective. This is why Structural Functionalism is considered a Macro theory, it’s more concerned with the overall picture than any specific or smaller parts. The way problems are solved is by restoring balance to the system. Not by completely overhauling society, but by adjusting the current structures and by using the current shared values and understandings. 42  Structural Functionalism ❑ To summarize, at its core, functionalism believes that society is made of different parts that work in harmony together to maintain a balance. In other words, everything that exists serves a purpose and contributes something to society. ❑ One way of describing this view is to say that society is like a human body: there are different parts that do different things, but every part serves a purpose, and all parts are connected to each other. 43  Structural Functionalism & Education ❑ Since we are considering the FUNCTION of education, let’s lean on the Structural Functionalist theoretical approach for this first-part of out conversation on education. ❑ The main functions of the education system as outlined in the Sociological literature are: 1. Selection & Sorting 2. Socialization 3. Job Training ❑ Let’s consider each of these in turn. 44  Structural Functionalism & Education 1. Selection & Sorting ❑ The functionalist theory of stratification argues that different jobs have different levels of importance and difficulty, which means you need to reward the important and difficult jobs with higher compensation to motivate people to pursue and fill those occupations. ❑ As part of this theory, if we accept that jobs must be paid differently based on importance and skill, we need to consider how competition for those jobs occurs. Ideally, we want it to be Meritocratic. 45  Structural Functionalism & Education 1. Selection & Sorting ❑ Meritocracy can be defined as: a system of rewards based on personal attributes within an individual's control (e.g., work ethic) and demonstrated abilities ❑ The opposite of meritocracy is a system based on nepotism, favoritism, bias, prejudice, preference, and discrimination. 46  Structural Functionalism & Education 1. Selection & Sorting ❑ Historically, most society’s were not very meritocratic. For example, for a long time only wealthy, white men were allowed to be politicians, to vote, to go to university, and so on. This is why so many foundational thinkers in academia were wealthy, white men. ❑ Logic tells us, and research confirms, that this is bad for society as a whole. Society’s thrive when talent versus factors not in people’s control like race, ethnicity, sexuality, socio-economic status, or gender determines position. ❑ For example, the people that became medical doctors, lawyers, and professors in the past when only wealthy white men could go to college were the best students of the white, wealthy men. By excluding women, minorities, and those not born wealthy we lost many excellent, lawyers, medical doctors, and professors who may have been better at the job but never got the chance to prove it. 47  Structural Functionalism & Education 1. Selection & Sorting ❑ When trying to understand why meritocracy is better for society ask yourself this question: If you needed a complicated surgery that has a low success rate (let’s say a rare type of brain surgery), do you want the best White, Wealthy, male doctor? Or do you just want the best doctor period? 48  Structural Functionalism & Education 1. Selection & Sorting ❑ As Structural Functionalism sees it, free and public education provides a means of ensuring meritocracy. ❑ After all, everyone is able to attend school, to demonstrate their ability, and then through grades they are sorted and ranked according to performance in multiple subjects. ❑ This allows individual students to understand what subjects are their strengths and weaknesses (something I’m sure you can relate to). ❑ It also opens (and subsequently closes) doors based on performances (ex: streaming in schools, admissions to University, entrance into professional schools, etc.). Therefore, matching the best candidates to the most important jobs. 49  Structural Functionalism & Education 1. Selection & Sorting ❑ Thus, one of the Manifest Functions (i.e. an intended function) of the education system according to Structural Functionalism is to sort people according to a fair and open competition. ❑ And this is optimal for society because it allows the best people to access the most important and complex positions. 50  Selecting/Sorting Function of Education ❑ Do you see the selecting/sorting function of education at play in University? In terms of sorting, we let people choose majors, minors and the fields they either want to study or that they are best at (depending what each person choose to emphasize) In terms of selecting you get graded in each class and those grades determine your ability to go into post-graduate programs like Law, Medicine, Graduate School (MA & PhD), and so on. ❑ How does the university ensure that grades are fair? For example, what would happen if SOC100 has a 60% average this semester and PSYCH100 had a 90% average. Would you consider that fair? ❑ What about if SOC100 last semester had an 80% average and this semester we have a 55% average. Would you consider that fair? How does the university ensure this doesn’t happen? 51  Selecting/Sorting Function of Education Grade GPA Meaning ❑ The University ensures that it doesn’t happen by A+ (90-100%) 4.0 Exceptional holding all courses to the same standard. In other A (85-89%) 4.0 Excellent words, it ensures every course follows the same A- (80-84%) 3.7 Very Good grade scale. Which is………………………….→ B+ (77-79%) 3.3 Good B (73-76%) 3.0 Above Average ❑ So guess what this course’s average has to be B- (70-72%) 2.7 Average Grade GPA Meaning between? C+ (67-69%) 2.3 Below Average ❑ This ensures that university averages are comparable C (63-66%) 2.0 Adequate across courses, across different professors teaching C- (60-62%) 1.7 the same course, and across time. D+ (57-59%) 1.3 Marginal D (53-56%) 1.0 D- (50-52%) 0.7 52  Structural Changes to Grades ▪ Question: If lower class averages affect student mental health, why don’t we just raise the averages so everyone can feel better about themselves? On a practical level, it would disadvantage those who came before the grade average change and those who came after. More importantly though, this would lead to grade inflation or “a rise in the average grade assigned to students” (Merriam-Webster, 2024). What is often lost in this argument is that if you raise grades for students, then standards to get into law school, medical school, grad school, and so on would also rise. Why should we care about grade inflation? 53  Structural Changes to Grades Last summer (2023), media articles were filled with stories of students with 90% averages in high school getting rejected from university programs. Stories like this one, where a student with a 96% high- school average was rejected from business schools at UofT, Queens, and McMaster. Due to pressure on high school teachers from parents, who are more involved in their child’s education and who are MORE likely to blame teachers versus their child for bad grades (Peterson et al, 2011). As well as the rise in accessibility accommodations and a more flexible education system, grades at the high school level have increased immensely. This doesn’t change how many spots are available in university programs and so the result is higher averages needed to enter programs and people angry that grades don’t mean what they used to due to grade inflation. 54  Structural Changes to Grades When describing the natural world, Newton’s third law states that “for every action in nature there is an equal and opposite reaction” (NASA, 2024). Structural functionalism teaches us that society works the same way. For example, if UofT allowed grade inflation and did the same thing, we would see an increase the average expected to enter post-grad degrees like law school. Students pressuring universities for higher grades has already resulted in a slow increase to grades. The result has been the needed average to get into programs like UofT law increasing as well. For example, the median GPA has gone from 3.83 in 2019 (~84%) to 3.9 in 2023 (~87%). The problem is, if UofT raised it’s expected class averages to say 80% versus 70% then the law school average would ultimately rise equally and result in something like needing a 96% average to get in versus 86%. 55  Structural Changes to Grades In the United States, they switched to a different grade scale where they raised grades 10%. Because the US has for-profit USA UofT/Canada universities that see students as Grade GPA Meaning customers, they have also seen a rise in A+ (90-100%) 4.0 Exceptional grades generally (i.e. grade inflation). A (85-89%) 4.0 Excellent The result in virtually everyone that gets A- (80-84%) 3.7 Very Good into law or medicine having 4.0 B+ (77-79%) 3.3 Good averages and so the universities use B (73-76%) 3.0 Above Average other means to distinguish them, like the Grade B- (70-72%) GPA 2.7 Meaning Average MCAT, LSAT, or GRE which is MORE C+ (67-69%) 2.3 Below Average problematic. C (63-66%) 2.0 Adequate C- (60-62%) 1.7 This is the argument behind Canadian D+ (57-59%) 1.3 Marginal universities NOT increasing the grade D (53-56%) 1.0 scale and allowing grade inflation. 56 D- (50-52%) 0.7  Structural Functionalism & Education 2. Socialization ❑ Remember that one of the main traits of Structural Functionalism is a concern with shared values and preferences. ❑ Related to that, let me ask a question: Imagine you wanted to access the entire population of a county in order to convey important messages and/or to develop shared values. When do such opportunities exist? ❑ The best answer to this question is the public education system. For example, 99.5% of children in Canada attend public primary school (Statistics Canada, 2020). ❑ This ubiquity or commonality of school means it plays an important role in Socialization. 57  Structural Functionalism & Education 2. Socialization ❑ Now this Socialization can include fostering Patriotism and national pride through singing national anthems or saying a pledge of allegiance. 58  Structural Functionalism & Education 2. Socialization ❑ It can include learning the importance of exercise and eating healthy food. 59  Structural Functionalism & Education 2. Socialization ❑ It can include reaffirming values like treating others with respect, accepting diversity, and not bullying. 60  Structural Functionalism & Education 2. Socialization ❑ Or not smoking and saying no to drugs. 61  Structural Functionalism & Education 2. Socialization ❑ Now what values and knowledge get taught in public schools is a point of contention or disagreement. ❑ While most parents and citizens are fine with health or anti-bullying initiatives, other topics bring much more division. For example: Sex Education Teaching different gender identities and sexualities, A nation’s history of racism such as the racism of its founding fathers; 62  Structural Functionalism & Education 2. Socialization ❑ Structural Functionalists would argue, however, that even these divisive topics are beneficial to developing and re-affirming shared values. It provides a platform for discussion from national to local levels. ❑ To be clear, schools are just one part of socialization. Family, media, friends, and many other sources have very large influences as well. ❑ However, this is another important and Manifest function that schools serve. 63  Structural Functionalism & Education 3. Job Training ❑ The final Manifest Function that the education system serves is the development of skills and knowledge important to work (and also to functioning in daily life). ❑ Running public education systems is not cheap, and governments do it because it is seen as a beneficial investment in its population. ❑ For example, Canadian Governments spent $85.6 billion on elementary and secondary schools in the 2020-2021 school year (Statistics Canada, 2021). DID YOU KNOW: If you break the cost of education down per student, the price-tag for one student to attend elementary or secondary school for one year in Canada is $12,528. That is more than the average yearly university tuition in Canada. 64  Structural Functionalism & Education 3. Job Training ❑ Human Capital Theory helps us understand this investment by governments in Canada and elsewhere in education. ❑ This theory argues that education is necessary to improve the economic or productive capacity of a population. The primary assumption here being that a well-educated population will be able to work more effectively, efficiently, and creatively/in innovative ways. ❑ In other words, Governments believe that the investment they makes in education will pay-off in the economic benefits it produces for the country (similar to the way that you are betting that the money you spend on tuition will pay-off in higher income later). Both beliefs are indeed confirmed by massive amounts of evidence (these benefits are real). 65  Structural Functionalism & Education 3. Job Training/Human Capital Theory ❑ An additional advantage of human capital (such as skills and knowledge) is that it in inalienable. In other words, it cannot be taken away. ❑ Thus, the final Manifest function of education is to provide citizens with inalienable skills and knowledge to help benefit themselves and benefit the country economically. ❑ Employers do prefer educated workers to non-educated workers in most cases, thus a good education system is important to a country’s economic appeal. This is especially true with increasing globalization where companies have greater ability to choose which countries they put their home offices, law office, marketing, accounting, etc.. 66  The Purpose of Education- Manifest Functions 3. Job Training/Human Capital Theory 67 Let’s Take A 5 Minute Break! 68  Part 3: Class Inequality in Education 69  Conflict Theory ❑ The second major theoretical branch to develop in Sociology is Conflict Theory. ❑ Conflict theory argues that society is made up of different groups with different interests and that they compete for power and resources. ❑ If often looks at various aspects of our social world and tries to explain them by looking at which groups have power and benefit from a particular social arrangement. ❑It started with Karl Marx who focused primarily on the power and action of the bourgeoisie (the very wealthy who own the means of production—e.g., factories or businesses) and how they exploited the proletariat (those who must sell their labor to survive). 70  Conflict Theory The four main tenets or principles of conflict theory are: 1. Generally, focuses on large, macro-level structures, such as the relations between or among socio-economic classes; 2. Shows how major patterns of inequality in society produce social stability in some circumstances and social change in others; 3. Stresses how members of privileged groups try to maintain their advantages while subordinate groups struggle to increase theirs. From this point of view, social conditions at a given time are the expression of an ongoing power struggle between privileged and subordinate groups; 4. Typically leads to the suggestion that decreasing privilege will lower the level of conflict and increase the sum total of human welfare. 71  Conflict Theory & Education ❑ Since we are considering inequality in education, let’s start with Class or Socio- Economic inequality and lean on the Conflict Theory approach for this conversation. ❑ In particular, conflict theory challenges or complicates some of the Structural Functionalist arguments we just considered. ❑ Let’s illustrate what I mean with 2 of the 3 functions education serves that we just reviewed: Selecting/Sorting and Socialization. 72  Conflict Theory & Education 1. Selection/Sorting ❑ Structural functionalism emphasizes how people are sorted based on educational performance, and how this is a good thing that benefits society due to education (at least until post-secondary) being free, compulsory, and, therefore, Meritocratic. ❑ Conflict theory, on the other hand, argues that the meritocratic nature of education is overstated. In other words, it only considers equality of opportunity (equal access/opportunity to the competition) and does not properly consider equality of condition (differences in material conditions that make someone more or less likely to succeed in the competition). 73  Conflict Theory & Education 1. Selection/Sorting ❑ Another way of stating this argument, is to understand the difference between equality and equity. ❑ Equality is defined as “a state of being equal.” Whereas, Equity is defined as “a state of being fair and impartial.” And the following picture helps illuminate the difference. 74  Conflict Theory & Education 1. Selection/Sorting ❑ So why do Conflict Theories believe the competition in education is not fair? ❑ Just remember that if education was a race, Structural Functionalists view it like this: 75  Conflict Theory & Education 1. Selection/Sorting ❑ Conflict theorists argue that education isn’t a fair competition. That some people have advantages (also called privileges) that others don’t (also called disadvantages). ❑ In other words, Conflict Theorists contend that the way education is set-up ensures those with disadvantages remain disadvantaged. That it reproduces class inequality. ❑ Now disadvantage can come in numerous forms. Sometimes it is overt (very clear, direct and not at all hidden) such as sexism, racism, or other forms of discrimination. But other times it is subtle (difficult to analyze or describe) and systemic (related to the structures and systems of society itself). 76  Conflict Theory & Education 1. Selection/Sorting ❑ To maintain our education as a race analogy: Overt discrimination would be disadvantages like starting far behind the others or having to race while holding a heavy object (i.e. things that can be seen and are obvious). Subtle and/or systemic discrimination would be things like whether all the runners had equal training opportunities, whether they had all eaten that day, what food they had access to, how much they were able to sleep the night before due to needing to work or perform family duties, and so on (i.e. things that are not seen and not obvious, also things that reflect inequality in other areas like socio-economic inequality between the runners). 77  Conflict Theory & Education 1. Selection/Sorting ❑ An easy way to understand the disadvantages faced by lower class children compared to upper class children in education is to use Pierre Bourdieu’s distinction between the 3 capitals. 1. Economic Capital: refers to one’s economic resources like money, wealth, property, and so on. 2. Social Capital: refers to one’s social networks and the shared norms, values, and understanding tied to who one knows and associates with. 3. Cultural Capital: refers to one’s skills, tastes/preferences, habits, clothing, mannerisms, and other symbolic elements that reflect one’s class. 78  Conflict Theory & Education 1. Selection/Sorting ❑ Lower class children from elementary school up to University, face significant disadvantages in all three areas. For example (and these are just a few of many): 1. Economic Capital Whether children have adequate housing; quiet Whether children have eaten breakfast, spaces to work; access to utilities like heat, whether they have a lunch, what kinds of food light, and water. they have access to. Whether children have access to educational How much parents have to work and, subsequently, resources at home like books, computers, the how much time they have to spend with children (for internet, and so on. example, working two jobs or double shifts to make ends meet). 79  Conflict Theory & Education 1. Selection/Sorting ❑ Lower class children from elementary school up to University, face significant disadvantages in all three areas. For example (and these are just a few of many): 2. Social Capital Whether the child can ask their parents for help The peers one connects with in their with homework or with navigating education neighborhood and how they regard education (for example, university applications). (ties to economic capital and the neighborhood one can afford). Whether parents monitor if children are doing well in school or how school is going. Parental ability to draw on their networks for advice on helping children succeed in education. 80  Conflict Theory & Education 1. Selection/Sorting ❑ Lower class children from elementary school up to University, face significant disadvantages in all three areas. For example (and these are just a few of many): 3. Cultural Capital Ability to interact positively with teachers Whether school is seen as something for (including following teacher expectations like “them”, whether people like them succeed in sitting still, or the language a child uses). school. Familiarity with cultural elements advantageous to Whether a child enjoys school and views it education like fiction books, museum visits, positively or as a worthwhile endeavor. concerts, intellectual debates at the dinner table, and so on. 81  Conflict Theory & Education ❑ Let’s have a quick class discussion: how each of the types of capital can affect performance at university? (I.e. how it reproduces class inequality) 1. Economic Capital: refers to one’s economic resources like money, wealth, property, and so on. 2. Social Capital: refers to one’s social networks and the shared norms, values, and understanding tied to who one knows and associates with. 3. Cultural Capital: refers to one’s skills, tastes/preferences, habits, clothing, mannerisms, and other symbolic elements that reflect one’s class. 82  Conflict Theory & Education ❑ Let’s have a quick class discussion: how each of the types of capital can affect performance at university? (I.e. how it reproduces class inequality) 1. Economic Capital: whether you have to work, commute time to campus, financial worry, having to rely on student debt and subsequent anxiety, access to good nutrition, ability to choose passions over practicality, etc. 2. Social Capital: whether you have social connections at university, whether you have people in your social network to help you make university decisions and to perform at university (tips for tests, essays, etc.) 3. Cultural Capital: whether you fit in at university (example of political correctness), how you speak/how you write, the skills you personally already have to succeed, how you are perceived by teachers, your knowledge of and ability to use institutional policies to your advantage, etc. 83  Conflict Theory & Education 1. Selection/Sorting ❑ Conflict Theorists would argue that these capital discrepancies or inequalities mean that an equal opportunity like education is not equal at all. ❑ Thus, the idea of meritocracy in education (sorting based on effort and demonstrated ability) isn’t actually what happens. ❑ In other words, one of the latent effects (i.e. unintended consequences) of the education system is reproducing class inequality and then justifying this inequality as fair (because if everyone gets what they deserve in meritocracy, and if education is meritocratic, then if you don’t succeed in society it’s your fault). 84  Conflict Theory & Education 2. Socialization ❑ As we discussed prior, Structural Functionalism sees the role education plays in socialization as a positive thing. Not surprisingly, Conflict Theorists see a darker side to it. ❑ They argue that another latent effect of the education system is socializing children into a hidden curriculum. Primarily, to be obedient and not to question authority. ❑ For example, school teaches children to be punctual, orderly (such as sitting in desks), compliant and respectful of authority. It teaches them to understand the negative consequences of challenging authority or not following rules and, in doing so, reinforces workplace hierarchies and creates a disciplined labor force. It also promotes competition and individualism in the way grades are used to select/sort, which reflects how capitalism works. 85  So… Who Is Right? ❑ Often in debates, people see it as either-or and pick a side. However, if there is one thing this class teaches you (and I hope it’s many things), it’s that most issues are complicated, and there is usually validity on both sides. In other words, the education system is both things ❑ The education system does reduce class inequality in learning and provides an opportunity to succeed and move up in the world. It promotes positive values like anti-bullying, health, and being tolerant of diversity. ❑ It also reflects and reproduces class inequality that exists outside of the education system, and prepares students for a life as productive workers. 86 Applying Sociology 87  Understanding Our Class Question for you all: Why is this class so large? What are the reasons for it being 250 students? Please note, by why is it so large I mean why did the university allow for classes of this size, NOT why do so many people want to take this class specifically. 88  Understanding Our Class ▪ Often you hear the sentiment from older generations that younger generations are idealistic (and vice versa, younger generations often think older generations are jaded—i.e. society broke them down and they no longer strive for what is right or ideal anymore). ▪ Sociology, particularly Max Weber, can help us with this misunderstanding. 89  Instrumental vs. Value Rationality ▪ Weber drew distinctions between different types of rationality or motivations behind social action and two of the primary types were: Instrumental or Means-End Rationality: choosing the most efficient, practical, and effective means to reach the desired end, which includes considering the conditions and other human beings that affect the ability to achieve the desired end (Kalberg, 1980). Value Rationality: Making decisions according to an ethical value that is seen as worth pursuing for its own sake regardless of the likelihood of success (ibid). 90  Instrumental vs. Value Rationality ▪ This distinction is often very helpful in understanding why things deviate from the ideal. For example, take politics & politicians: Value Rationality: Politicians should at all times make decisions according to what is best for society as a whole both in the present and future. Instrumental or Means-End Rationality: Politicians must get elected every 4 years, they must balance what they think is best with what their constituents desire (because it is their constituents that elect them), they must also work within their political parties and make compromises there (they must also often compromise with the other political parties). Further, they must also fundraise and seek donations to be able to run effective campaigns because they must get elected. These are just some of the practical or instrumental limitations to focusing solely on the ideal. 91  Instrumental vs. Value Rationality “Democracy is the worst form of government – except for all the others that have been tried” ▪ There is a tendency among younger generations to attribute social problems to character flaws or apathy among leaders. ▪ More often, flaws and issues stem from structural factors that make perfection impossible. Life is about choosing the lesser of two evils (the least bad option), perfection is rarely an option. 92  Instrumental vs. Value Rationality ▪ Weber hypothesized that society was moving constantly more towards an instrumental rationality particularly as it moved away from religious motivations for actions, he called this the process of rationalization. ▪ If you ever look at an issue and wonder: why is this situation so far away from what it ideally should be? It often becomes clear what the barriers to the ideal are once the practical limitations or instrumental rationality are considered. ▪ Another easy example to illustrate this is your current decisions in majors and careers. You are likely balancing your passions and desires (value rationality) with the desire to achieve good employment and earn enough to make a good living (instrumental rationality). 93  Instrumental vs. Value Rationality ▪ What does this have to do with this class/your education? ▪ As we mentioned last class, the cost or tuition that the Federal and Provincial government paid for each year of your Kindergarten to Grade 12 education was $12,528 CAD/ year. ▪ You’ll notice that this is significantly less than the annual University of Toronto tuition for Domestic students of ~$8,580 (program dependent). How can university be cheaper despite being significantly more expensive institutions to run? ▪ First, because the provincial government provides funds per student (roughly $5,500/year) and the federal government also provides funds per student (about $2,150/year). 94  Instrumental vs. Value Rationality ▪ Beyond providing funding for domestic students, the reason tuition is low is because the Canadian governments artificially keep them low. ▪ For example, Ontario reduced tuition by 10% in 2019 then froze tuition including this year making it so universities cannot raise more money (CBC, 2022) 95  Instrumental vs. Value Rationality ▪ The problem is that inflation does not freeze, which means universities have to deal with a budget shortfall. ▪ Consider that after inflation, a dollar today in 2024 is worth $0.82 of a dollar in 2019 (Statistics Canada, 2024). In other words, the university's bills have increased by 18% but revenue has not due to the tuition freeze. ▪ In other words, the university has to come up with 18% of their budget in order to maintain the same operations as in 2019 (by the way, the UofT budget is 3.23 billion so 18% of the budget is ~582 million dollars). ▪ When private businesses want to keep the same price of a product but face inflation, you get shrinkflation- “the practice of reducing a product's amount or volume per unit while continuing to offer it at the same price” (Merriam-Webster, 2023). 96  Instrumental vs. Value Rationality ▪ In university, the same principle results in larger class sizes. ▪ In other words, the most common response to budget shortfalls in universities is to raise class size (that way you pay the same for the class/building, the same for the professor to teach it, but you are able to make-up that 18% budget loss by offering less “product” for the price). ▪ Intro classes are the obvious place to do this (4th year Soc classes, for example, are 15 students). 97  Other Hypotheses Universities in Canada Are Just Trying to Make Money ▪ Universities in Canada are public institutions (they are non-profit organizations), they do not try to turn profit or charge market value of their degrees to Canadian citizens. For example, the average private university tuition per year in the US is $53,167 (and that’s domestic tuition). What international students pay ($62,500 on average) is the actual market value of your degree at UofT. University Employees Make Too Much Money ▪ The average UofT Prof makes ~ $140,000 per year (depends on experience and discipline), equivalent professors at Ivy League schools in the US earn between $235,000 to $300,000 per year (Insider, 2019). UofT actually has trouble retaining our best professors, many leave for higher pay in other countries and especially the US. ▪ The University of Toronto President earns just under $500,000 per year (Toronto Star, 2022). He oversees roughly 97,000 students, ~15,000 faculty, ~10,000 staff members (UofT, 2022). In comparison, the CEOs of equivalently sized companies in Canada (e.g. Rogers also has ~25,000 employees) was 14.3 million per year in 2021 (Global News, 2023). 98  Other Hypotheses There are too many administrators at Universities ▪ A common critique in recent years is universities have too many administrators. What this argument neglects is that the demands on universities have changed. For example, Accessibility Services went from a service not offered at university to a large department at every university. Counselling services, Institutional Equity offices, and other similar initiatives are the same. Most people agree that these offices are necessary and there is high demand for them from students, but they bring more admin/non-teaching staff to a university. 99  Other Hypotheses Universities are too focused on research. ▪ Many people overestimate how much Universities spend on research (for example, in 2019- 2020 the UofT made 491 million on research revenue and spent 550 million on it for a total cost of 59 million, to put this in perspective the university spent 330 million that year on student aid, grants, and funding, i.e. 5.6 times more). Research is primarily funded by government grants, the typical UofT professor gets $2,000 a year to spend on their research. ▪ We also must consider WHERE research should be done. If universities do not engage in research, then research would be left to the business or private sector, which because of their motives for profits can create havoc. ▪ For example, Pharmaceutical companies funding research that found that Opioid use was safe which has caused a mass epidemic. ▪ Another example is Oil companies funding research that finds climate change is natural and not human-caused. ▪ For this reason, having non-profit, impartial institutions like 100 universities doing research is imperative.  Summary of Instrumental/Value Rationality ▪ So in other words, for universities… Value Rationality: Provide the best education/learning experience possible. Instrumental or Means-End Rationality: Provide as quality an education as possible in an environment where financials resources are stretched very thin with little leeway so domestic students don’t pay international student prices. ▪ Solutions: Charge more tuition (not desirable for students or for society with student debt limiting young adults). Charge more tax (Sweden and Norway have university education free but also have the 5th and 6th highest tax burdens among the 38 most developed countries, Canada is 27th) ([OECD, 2022a; OECD, 2022b]. Average income tax is roughly 33% in Canada and 52% in Sweden. Continue freezing tuition and raising class sizes. 101  Summary of Instrumental/Value Rationality ▪ Does anybody know (aside from raising class sizes) what the primary solution Canadian universities have been using to make up the budget shortfall is? ▪ It’s international students! Remember for domestic students (between tuition and government funding) the university get roughly $16,250 each. International students pay roughly $60,000 each. While $60,000 is market value (i.e. what international students would pay at any North American university), it means international students are subsidizing your education. ▪ It’s very understandable to want smaller class sizes, more access to professors, and more/better services at the university. But you need to realize that if you’re a domestic student you are actually paying an artificially low price for your education. International students pay roughly 7 times more for the same experience/degree. 102  Summary of Instrumental/Value Rationality ▪ The only way to decrease class sizes, to offer better services in all areas (from Accessibility services, to more on campus experiences, more social spaces, better mental health services, etc.) is to find a way to increase the funds universities receive. ▪ Over the last 30 years that has been done almost exclusively through raising tuition (governments have actually been decreasing university funding over the last 30 years). ▪ The issue is not anyone being unfair or evil, it’s quite simply a structural issue where university budgets keep increasing with inflation and with student service demands (like offering mental health and accessibility services, etc.) but the funds they receive do not increase. Thus, the issue is structural/sociological versus a greed or other issue. 103 THE END 104