EDUC 3P70 Lectures PDF

EDUC 3P70 Lectures Lecture 1: ​ School intertwined w society ​ Schools are institutions that operate in certain ways and have a purpose ​ School and education don’t necessarily mean the same thing ​ Schools impart values to be good workers in society Lecture 2: ​ SOCIOLOGY THEORY...

EDUC 3P70 Lectures Lecture 1: ​ School intertwined w society ​ Schools are institutions that operate in certain ways and have a purpose ​ School and education don’t necessarily mean the same thing ​ Schools impart values to be good workers in society Lecture 2: ​ SOCIOLOGY THEORY ○​ Are we a schooled society? → according to textbook, yes ​ Why do we need to go to school? ​ Agency, feel like we need to be ​ ****Likely exam question: why are we a schooled society? ​ A (BRIEF) INTRO TO SOCIOLOGY ○​ Sociology is a social science that studies human society and behaviour. ○​ Sociologists are mainly interested in social interactions – how people relate to one another and how they influence each others' decisions. ○​ Sociologists tend to focus on the group, rather than the individual. ○​ Sociologists examine social phenomena or observable facts or events involving human interaction to make predictions about future trends and behaviors. ○​ Sociology can thus give you a new SOCIOLOGICAL perspective on yourself and the world ○​ around you--looking beyond commonly held beliefs to determine hidden meanings behind human actions. ○​ A sociological perspective helps us understand that people's behaviour is influenced by social factors and learned behaviors from those around us. ○​ By developing this perspective, we can begin to use the sociological imagination; the ability to see a connection between the larger world and one’s personal life ○​ Sociology primarily concerns itself with social relationships. ○​ A network of social relationships is called the society. ○​ The society is the sole concern of sociology. ○​ Though, there are other aspects of the social science that focuses on some other aspects of the society, the central concern of sociology is the social relationships of mankind. ○​ Sociology also uses scientific method in its study.  ○​ Science is an accumulated body of systemized knowledge and widely accepted processes dedicated to the discovery of generalizations and theories for refining and building on existing knowledge ○​ Sociologists may look at schools, the school system, etc but not individual ○​ more on macro side ○​ Looking at people, social factors ○​ Make connections between individual and world around them ○​ How does society function? ​ ***Agency < – > Structure ○​ Key to all sociological discussions is the debate between agency and structure ○​ Agency referring to an individuals ability to act independently or make choices ○​ Structure referring to things that exist in society that may impact, limit or influence choice ○​ Macro theories tend to emphasize structure ○​ Micro theories tend to emphasize agency ○​ Important to ALWAYS be considering these dialectically when considering any sociological debate ○​ “Agency denotes individual capacity for free thought and action” (Bruce & Yearley, 2006)“ ○​ Structure denotes the constraints on individuals that result from the fact that repeated patterns of action, legitimated by ideologies, form the environment that shapes us and limits our actions.” (Bruce & Yearley, 2006) ○​ Examples: ​ Work ​ Religion ​ Marriage ​ Education ○​ Choices ○​ We can't really do whatever we want - there are rules and policies in place that restrict choices or make you think before doing something → these are structures ○​ Social norms/expectations ○​ Examples ​ Work ​ Religion ​ Marriage ​ Education - how schools impact, shape us, affect us after years ​ Sociological Theory: ○​ Do you “have” to go to school? Why or why not?  ​ To a degree - need a diploma/degree to have a good job (many require it), part of society's expectations and social pressure ​ Intro to Sociology : 2 Recurrent Themes in Sociology ○​ Consensus: what people share (norms, values) ○​ Conflict: inequality and power (life and death differences) ​ INTRO TO CLASSICAL SOCIOLOGY ​ Consensus theories are those that see people in society as having shared interests and society functioning on the basis of there being broad consensus on its norms and values. This is most associated with functionalism. ​ Conflict theories focuses on the competition among groups within society over limited resources. This views social and economic institutions as tools of the struggle among groups or classes, used to maintain inequality and the dominance of the ruling class. This is most associated with conflict theories ​ THEORY ○​ What is theory? ​ Most simply, theories are an attempt to explain something. ​ Sociological theories are therefore attempts to understand and explain the social world. ​ However, all theories have limits, as they are based on certain assumptions. ​ The theories from this week and next week thus are different ways of thinking about both schools and society and the roles that each might play in our world. ​ Theories are not necessarily mutually exclusive, but more often build onto and into one another in ways that we can better understand the social world around us. ​ THEORY EXAMPLES ​ The Big Bang Theory ​ The Theory of Relativity ​ The Theory of Evolution ​ Climate Change Theory ​ Learning Theories ​ Behaviorist, Cognitive, Social Constructivism ​ Theory vs. Law ○​ Both theories and laws may be used to make predictions about natural behaviour. ○​ However, theories explain why something works, while laws simply describe behaviour under given conditions. ○​ Theories do not change into laws; laws do not change into theories ​ THEORY ​ SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION ​ The sociology of education is the study of how public institutions (schools) and individual experiences affect education and its outcomes ​ It is primarily concerned with the public schooling systems of modern industrial societies, including the expansion of schooling. ​ The sociology of education focuses attention on the social factors that both cause and are caused by education. It includes the study of factors relating to education and schooling. ​ These could include dimensions such as gender, social class, race and ethnicity, and rural–urban residence, amongst other intersections. ○​ E.g., why are there more females than males in universities ​ Education is typically viewed in most societies as a pathway to personal development, success, and social mobility, and as a cornerstone of democracy, ○​ School as a social function ​ Sociologists who study education take a critical view of these assumptions to study how the institution actually operates within society. ​ They consider what other social functions education might have, like for example socialization into gender and class roles, and what other social outcomes contemporary educational institutions might produce, like reproducing class and racial hierarchies, among others. ​ SOCIOLOGY THEORY ○​ How does society actually exist and function? ​ How do we find a way to co-exist?? How do we have education system funded by the government that educates thousands of children every day?? ​ INTRO TO CLASSICAL SOCIOLOGY ○​ Sociology took root in the 1800’s primarily in continental Europe--countries were also affected by the Industrial Revolution. ○​ Like today, the early sociologists believed that through the collection of data, observations and scientific research you could predict future social trends and behaviors to improve society. ○​ The early European leaders included; Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim and Max Weber. ○​ Other early leaders of sociology in the United States included W.E.B. Dubois and Jane Addams ○​ There are three general approaches to the study of sociology: ​ Functionalist Perspective: ​ Focuses on society as a set of interrelated parts that work together to produce a stable environment ○​ Interrelated parts come together to work and function ○​ Do we all need education to function?? ○​ More macro ​ Conflict Perspective (also know as critical perspectives): ​ Focuses on the forces in society that promote instability, competition and change. ○​ Competition, unfairness, exploitation → minimum wage vs higher wage people ○​ Are we going to live in a world without wars ever? Seems conflict is inevitable ○​ More macro ​ Interpretivist/Interactionist Perspective: ​ Focuses on how individuals and groups create meaning in the world and how the interact with each other and their outcomes ○​ More of a micro perspective ○​ How do we come to make sense of our world? ​ CONNECTIONS TO TEACHING  ○​ How you come to understanding education provides a basis for you to consider your place within the schooling system. ​ CLASSIC SOCIOLOGY ○​ Max Weber ​ Focus is on structures and how authority is configured, reconfigured and legitimized ​ This is done through ideas ​ Emphasises the role of bureaucracy in modern societies and resultant rationalization ​ Class is also relevant as societies tend to stratify and reproduce themselves ​ Upper, middle, lower class and why society stratifies itself in these ways ​ Schools are very bureaucratic institutions ○​ Karl Marx ​ Individuals live in social structure under certain economic relations ​ Under capitalism, these relations exists in specific (i.e exploitive) ways ​ The “ruling” class is always seeking ways to control or take advantage of the lower or “working” class ​ Class is then the key unit of analysis ​ Conflict theorist ​ Talking about class - conflict between classes ○​ Emile Durkheim ​ Focuses on socialization & Integration ​ How to get individuals to be “productive” members of society ​ Society is like an organism with many pieces that all fit together ​ Examined structures (families, religion) and how these fulfil social stability & reproduction (transmission) ​ How society fits together in things such as family, religion ​ Is it society’s need to provide stability to function ? ​ CLASSIC SOCIOLOGY ○​ Functionalism ​ Macro Theory ​ Functionalists generally view society as a set of interrelated parts that work together to produce a functioning environment ​ Everyone has a “function” in society ​ Maintenance of stability & social order ○​ Conflict Theory ​ Macro Theory ​ Marxists focus on the forces (i.e structures) in society that promote competition and change ​ Changes in society occur as a result of the struggles and conflicts of different groups  ​ Conflict theory has been readily expanded into other critical theories (see Chapter 3) ○​ Interpretivism ​ Micro Theory ​ Interactionist Perspective: They focus on how individuals interact with each other and their outcomes. ​ Importance of interactions ​ Importance of language ​ Importance of environments & symbol ​ As individuals interact, they create (and recreate) meaning ​ DURKHEIM AND FUNCTIONALISM ○​ Collective Conscience ​ Durkheim emphasized the importance of the collective conscience— the shared beliefs, values, and moral attitudes that unify society. This collective conscience is essential for social order and stability, binding individuals together in a cohesive society. ○​ Division of Labor ​ Durkheim analyzed how the increasing specialization of work (division of labor) in modern societies leads to greater interdependence among individuals. He believed that this interdependence helps maintain social cohesion, even in more complex, differentiated societies. ○​ Anomie ​ Durkheim introduced the concept of anomie, a state of normlessness or lack of social regulation, which occurs when societal norms are unclear or break down. Anomie can lead to social instability, deviance, and increased suicide rates, as individuals feel disconnected from the collective conscience. ○​ Durkheim's view was that society is a complex system, where interrelated parts work together to maintain order and ba…. ​ Do schools make us “productive”? How so? ○​ Gives purpose which helps to integrate in society ○​ Schools make individual children productive members of society by teaching them how be on time, complete assignments, be respectful, etc ​ Do schools sort students into different categories? How? Why? ○​ Grades rank students on their success, which divides them into where they will likely be in job market later on in life ​ WEBER & FUNCTIONALISM/CONFLICT ○​ Functionalism ○​ Examines how social structures function in order to meet social or societal needs  ○​ These structure emerge by consensus and society can be viewed as an body with numerous moving parts ○​ The main concern here is stability and how might it be ensured i.e – looking at functions and dysfunctions. ○​ Thus, social structures may need to change or evolve over time ○​ Overall, structural functionalism takes a more conservative and hierarchical view of social systems and tends to support the status quo ○​ Bureaucracy! ○​ Conflict ○​ Structures are not always good – they bind us ○​ Ex- Iron Cage ○​ Key Questions ​ What structures exist? ​ Are they functioning properly? ​ WEBER & FUNCTIONALISM/CONFLICT ○​ Social Action ​ Weber focused on social action, emphasizing that individuals act based on their subjective understanding of the world. He believed that understanding the meaning individuals attach to their actions is crucial to understanding social structures. This contrasts with Durkheim's focus on external social facts. ○​ Bureaucracy and Rationalization ​ Weber examined the rise of bureaucracy and rationalization. He saw bureaucratic organizations as essential for efficient functioning in complex societies, where tasks are divided and specialized. This aligns with functionalist ideas in how social institutions like bureaucracy help maintain societal order, though Weber viewed this as part of the larger process of rationalization. ○​ Iron Cage ​ Weber warned about the consequences of excessive rationalization, leading to what he termed the "iron cage" of bureaucracy. While bureaucracy can efficiently organize society, it can also trap individuals in a rigid, dehumanizing system where personal values and freedoms are overshadowed by bureaucratic functions. ​ Negative aspects of bureaucracy ​ Can talk about in relation to marks and schools, how schools may restrict creativity due to certain expectations ○​ Authority and Power ​ Weber introduced three types of legitimate authority: traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal. These forms of authority explain how social order is maintained in different societies. WEBER & FUNCTIONALISM/CONFLICT ​ Functionalism Example: ○​ Why do all schools seem to look/operate in the same way? (rationalization) ​ Teachers tend to come from same education background since degrees are required  ​ They fit into society in a particular way and its hard to change that structure WEBER AND INTERPRETIVISM ​ Verstehen ○​ A central concept in Weber's interpretivist approach is Verstehen, which refers to understanding the meaning and purpose behind human actions from the actor's perspective. Weber believed that to fully comprehend social behavior, sociologists must interpret the subjective meanings that individuals assign to their actions. ​ Social Action ○​ He argued that sociologists must study actions based on how individuals interpret their situations and the symbolic significance they attach to their behavior. ​ Ideal Types ○​ Weber developed the concept of ideal types as a methodological tool for understanding social phenomena. These are theoretical models that capture the essential features of complex social behaviors or institutions. Ideal types are used to make sense of the diversity of social actions by analyzing them in relation to a constructed framework of meaning. ​ Subjectivity and Objectivity in Social Research ○​ Weber acknowledged the challenge of balancing subjectivity and objectivity in sociological research. He argued that while social scientists should strive for objectivity, they must also interpret the subjective experiences of individuals. (Giddens) SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM ​ (Symbolic) Interactions ​ Interactionists often focus on the role that symbols play in our daily lives. ​ Interactionists also focus on how people use symbols when they interact – ​ Symbolic interactionism ​ A symbol is anything that represents something else. ​ Similarly, rituals convey a shared meaning in practice (ex- Prayer). ​ In order for something to be a symbol, everyone in a society must agree on what it means/stands for. (ex- A Flag) ​ Thus, behaviors, gestures and words can have multiple and even conflicting meanings and interpretations but meaning is creating though interaction and through some sort of consensus ​ Ex- socialization and individualism ​ Key Questions ○​ How do groups create shared meaning? ○​ How important are shared morals and value? INTERACTIONISM ​ The Self ○​ Mead emphasized that the self is developed through social interaction. According to him, individuals learn to see themselves through the perspective of others (the "generalized other"), which allows them to function within society. The self is not innate but emerges from social processes.  ​ The "I" and the "Me“ ○​ Mead introduced the concept of the "I" and the "Me" to explain the dual aspects of the self. The "I" represents the spontaneous, unpredictable, and creative aspect of the individual, while the "Me" is the organized set of attitudes learned from the community and society. These two parts of the self interact and shape human behavior in social contexts. ​ Symbols and Meaning ○​ Mead argued that human interaction is mediated by symbols, particularly language. He believed that people assign meanings to symbols (words, gestures, objects) and these meanings guide their actions. Through shared symbols, individuals communicate and understand one another, which forms the basis of social life. ​ Role-Taking: ○​ Mead introduced the concept of role-taking, where individuals assume the perspectives of others to understand their expectations and behaviors. This ability is crucial for social coordination and interaction, as individuals must anticipate the actions and reactions of others to function effectively within a group. ​ WEBER & FUNCTIONALISM ○​ Are schools truly meritocratic institutions? ○​ Can they be / should they be? MARX & CONFLICT THEORY ​ Conflict Theory ○​ Groups in society are in a constant state of struggle for control over scarce or limited resources (power) ○​ Inequalities in society are dominated and perpetuated by the dominant or ruling class ○​ This dominated is determined at any given historical moment by the forces and relations of production—this is turn determine our social relations ○​ Social change can only occur through class struggle and revolution ○​ Overall, Marxist conflict theory focuses on structures with little regard for agency and choice ○​ Key Questions ​ What has power? Who does not? ​ Who benefits? Why and how? ​ What perpetuates class inequality? MARX & CONFLICT THEORY ​ Conflict Example: ○​ Are schools just training for job preparation? ​ Tend to prepare us for going into specific fields ​ Some people think schools should teach us more than this MARX & CONFLICT THEORY ​ What happens when schools are places that are focused on job preparation? CLASSICAL THEORY & SCHOOLS ​ Weber ○​ Rationalization ​ Bureaucratic nature of schooling systems ​ School Reform ​ Durkheim ○​ Socialization ​ Schools as places which promote collective values ​ School Discipline ​ Marx ○​ Stratification ​ Socioeconomic status as a strong predictor of educational success ​ School Inequality THE SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION WHAT DO SCHOOLS DO ​ SOCIALIZATION ○​ Values/Morality ​ SELECTION ○​ Assessment/Evaluation ​ ORGANIZATION ○​ Streaming ​ LEGITIMIZATION ○​ Credentials Lecture 3 ​ KEY CONCEPTS ○​ Socialization ○​ Social Stratification ○​ Meritocracy ○​ Social Mobility ○​ Credentialism ○​ Cultural Capital ○​ Social Capital ○​ Human Capital ○​ Isomorphism ○​ Globalization ○​ Neoliberalism ○​ PostModernism ​ Socialization ​ Socialization: Agency or Structure? ​ Socialization ○​ Socialization is the lifelong process through which people learn the values and norms of a given society. ○​ Thus, socialization is the process through which people are taught to be proficient members of a society to understand societal norms and expectations, to accept society’s beliefs, and to be aware of societal values. ○​ Socialization can occur through explicit instruction, conditioning, and role modelling. ○​ We see many education theories (i.e constructivism) building similar ideas in relation to children and self-development ​ Freud – personality, sexuality ​ Piaget – development & interaction ​ Erikson -- stages of development, values ​ Bourdieu -- habitus ○​ Durkheim was the first to make this distinction in research when he attributed differences in suicide rates among people to social causes (religious differences) rather than to psychological causes (like their mental well-being). ○​ The point that sociologists like Durkheim would make is that an analysis of individuals at the individual level cannot adequately account for the social variability of behaviours ​ Socialization ○​ Rosenthal and Jacobsen (1968) – The Pygmalion Effect ○​ Demonstration that teacher expectations influence student ○​ performance. ○​ Positive expectations influence performance positively, and negative expectations influence performance negatively. ○​ “When we expect certain behaviours of others, we are likely to ○​ act in ways that make the expected behaviour more likely to ○​ occur.” (Rosenthal and Babad, 1985) ○​ Since that time, numerous researchers have found support for this theory, demonstrating that teacher expectations are more predictive than other factors  ○​ Conversely, researhers have noted a Golem Effect for holding low expectations ​ Pygmalion Effect - video ○​ describes situations where someone's high expectations improves our behavior and therefore our performance in a given area. ○​ Teachers high expectations could improve their performance - study ​ Found that with a teacher who showed high expectations had higher gains in knowledge/understanding than those who did not ​ Self-fulfilling prophecy ​ Teacher with low expectations is willing to accept a low-quality response ​ Socialization ○​ Randall Collins ​ Argues that things such as sex, smoking, and social stratification and much else in our social lives are driven by a common force: interaction rituals. ​ Interaction Ritual Chains is a major work of sociological theory that attempts to develop a "radical microsociology” ​ There are two components to this linkage: emotional energy and cultural capital ​ Successful rituals create symbols of group membership and “pump-up” individuals with emotional energy, while failed rituals drain emotional energy. ​ Each person flows from situation to situation, drawn to those interactions where their cultural capital gives them the best emotional energy payoff. ​ This theory of interaction ritual chains is where the individual is the carrier of the micro-macro link ​ Socialization ○​ George Mead- Theory of Self ​ The "I" and the "Me": ​ Mead’s theory of self emphasizes the development of the self through social interaction. The "I" represents the individual's spontaneous, creative aspect, while the "Me" is the socialized part shaped by societal norms. In education, students navigate between these two aspects as they learn and conform to social expectations within the school environment ​ Role-taking: ​ Mead highlights the importance of role-taking—the ability to adopt the perspective of others. In schools, students learn to take on roles (e.g., student, peer) and understand how their actions are perceived, which helps them develop empathy and social skills necessary for functioning in broader society. ​ The Generalized Other: ​ In education, students internalize the expectations of the generalized other, representing the collective attitudes of society. This process helps them align their behaviors with societal norms and understand their place in the social structure, aiding ​ SOCIALIZATION ○​ Charles Cooley- “Looking Glass Self” Theory ​ Self-Perception through Others: Cooley’s Looking Glass Self theory posits that individuals form their self-identity by reflecting on how they believe others perceive them. ​ Ex- In education, students develop their sense of self by interpreting feedback from teachers, peers, and authority figures, shaping their confidence and self-esteem. ​ The looking-glass self describes the process wherein individuals base their sense of self on how they believe others view them. ​ Using social interaction as a type of “mirror,” people use the judgments they receive from others to measure their own worth, values, and behavior. ​ Cooley’s theory is notable because it suggests that self-concept is built not in solitude, but rather within social settings. ​ The hidden curriculum ○​ A hidden curriculum refers to the unspoken or implicit values, behaviours, procedures, and norms that exist in the educational setting. While such expectations are not explicitly written, hidden curriculum is the unstated promotion and enforcement of certain behavioural patterns, professional standards, and social beliefs while navigating a learning environment ○​ A hidden curriculum can be defined as the lessons that are taught informally, and usually unintentionally, in a school system. These include behaviours, perspectives, and attitudes that students pick up while they're at school. This is contrasted with the formal curriculum, such as the courses and activities students participate in. ○​ The idea expresses the notion that schools do not simply teach the official, formal curriculum, but that they also transmit norms, values, processes, rules and, perhaps most importantly, social relationships. In this role schools help maintain the existing (unequal) social order, a function of schooling that has far greater impact on students than the learning of the formal curriculum itself. ​ Socialization - video ○​ Family is primary socialization - first teachers and exposure to religion, politics, cultural capital - reading books and presence of books in home, gender socialization, learning behaviours associated with race and class ○​ Schools - teach 3 R’s plus hidden curriculum about norms, beliefs and values ○​ Peer groups - who you hang out w affected how well you did in school ○​ Media impacts our socialization ​ Connections between excessive tv watching and delays in language ​ It affects our views and perspectives ​ Outlines rules and social norms ​ Question: What are some examples of socialization found within schools? ​ Selection ○​ Key Question: Nature or Nurture? ○​ Key Queston: Do human beings and human societies naturally order themselves by some sort of rank or hierarchy? Or are these sorts of rankings socially constructed? ​ Stratification  ○​ Social stratification refers to a society's categorization of its people into groups based on socioeconomic factors like wealth, income, race, education, ethnicity, gender, occupation, social status, or derived power (social and political). ○​ As such, stratification is the relative social position of persons within a social group, category, geographic region, or social unit. ○​ Generally, in modern Western societies, social stratification is typically defined in terms of three social classes: the upper class, the middle class, and the lower class. ○​ Sociologists distinguish between two types of systems of stratification: ○​ Closed systems accommodate little change in social position. They do ○​ not allow people to shift levels and do not permit social relationships ○​ between levels. Closed systems include estate, slavery, and caste ○​ systems. ○​ Open systems are based on achievement and allow for movement and interaction between layers and classes. How different systems operate reflect, emphasize, and foster specific cultural values, shaping individual beliefs. ​ Meritocracy ○​ Meritocracy is an ideal based on the belief that social stratification is the result of personal effort—or merit—that determines social standing [functionalism]. ○​ High levels of effort will lead to a high social position, and vice versa. ○​ The concept of meritocracy is an ideal—because a society has never existed where social rank was based purely on merit. ○​ Because of the complex structure of societies, processes like socialization, and the realities of economic systems, social standing is influenced by multiple factors—not merit alone. Inheritance and pressure to conform to norms, for instance, disrupt the notion of a pure meritocracy. ○​ While a meritocracy has never existed, sociologists see aspects of meritocracies in modern societies when they study the role of academic success and job performance and the systems in place for evaluating and rewarding achievement in these areas ​ Meritocracy? - video ​ Capital ○​ Capital is a term which comes from economics ○​ Capital generally refers to wealth in the form of money or other assets owned by a person or organization or available or contributed for a particular purpose such as starting a company or investing ○​ Drawing from this idea, social theorists have examined the impact of capital and in education specifically, looking at this idea of “resources” to explain educational outcomes ○​ For example, research has demonstrated consistently over the years that students’ socioeconomic status or SES is an extremely strong predictor of educational success ○​ Since then, the concept of capital has expanded towards understanding individual and social differences as well as stratification ○​ Karl Marx ○​ Pierre Bourdieu ​ Cultural Capital  ○​ Cultural capital comprises the social assets of a person (education, intellect, style of speech, style of dress, etc.) that promote social mobility in a stratified society. ○​ Cultural capital functions as a social relation within an economy of practices (i.e., system of exchange), and includes the accumulated cultural knowledge that confers social status and power. ○​ It comprises all of the material and symbolic goods, without distinction, that society considers rare and worth seeking. ○​ Embodied cultural capital comprises the knowledge that is consciously acquired and passively inherited, by socialization to culture and tradition. ○​ Objectified cultural capital comprises the person's property that can be transmitted for economic profit (and for symbolically conveying the possession of cultural capital facilitated by owning such things. ○​ Institutionalized cultural capital comprises an institution's formal recognition of a person's cultural capital, usually academic credentials or profession ​ Social Capital ○​ Social capital refers to the resources and benefits individuals gain through their social networks, relationships, and group memberships. ○​ In education, students with access to influential social connections (e.g., well-connected families, and supportive peer groups) can leverage these networks to enhance their academic success and future opportunities. ○​ Bourdieu argues that social capital contributes to the reproduction of social inequalities such as those found in education. ○​ Students from privileged backgrounds often have access to more valuable networks that provide educational advantages, such as mentorship, insider knowledge, or academic support, perpetuating class disparities in educational outcomes. ○​ Social capital in education not only aids immediate academic success but also accumulates over time. ​ HUMAN CAPITAL THEORY ○​ A modern extension of Adam Smith's explanation of wage differentials ○​ Economists such as Gary S. Becker & Jacob Mincer: All other things being equal, personal incomes vary according to the amount of investment in human capital; that is, the education and training undertaken by individuals or groups of workers ○​ Therefore, governments and companies should invest in the development of human capital as it will lead to further economic growth ○​ Human capital is therefore directly related to the idea of productivity (value) ○​ Thus, education should be directed as improving and upgrading human capital ○​ This then connects to the values and purposes of education in various ways. ​ (UPWARD) MOBILITY ○​ Upward mobility refers to the movement of an individual or group to a higher social class or economic status, within a society, typically measured by income, occupation, or education. ○​ Mobility can be intergenerational (across generations) or intragenerational (within a person's lifetime), reflecting changes in social standing over time.  ○​ Influencing factors include education, social/cultural capital, economic opportunities, and structural barriers like race, class, gender, discrimination or unequal access to resources. ​ Stratification - video ​ Key Question - are schools “fair”? Why or why not? ​ Organization and Legitimization ​ CREDENTIALISM THEORY ○​ Randall Collins among others have also advanced theories surrounding the role of credentials in both education and society ○​ Collinsʼ (1979) credentialist position was that employers were using credentials to allocate more educated workers to better jobs, and that more highly educated workers were finding more lucrative jobs, not necessarily because they were more skilled or productive, but simply because they had more education ○​ Credentials reflect or symbolize numerous things; knowledge, status, access as well as organizational bureaucracy and monopoly ○​ Credential inflation or grade inflation are today important issues at all levels of formal education ○​ Credentialism refers to the common practice of relying on earned credentials when hiring staff or assigning social status. Instead of directly evaluating an individual’s abilities, evaluators study that person’s credentials as a shortcut to estimate their competencies. ○​ “Credentials” often refer to academic or educational qualifications, such as degrees or diplomas that you have completed or partially-completed. ○​ “Credentials” can also refer to occupational qualifications, such as professional certificates or work experience. ○​ In Western society, there has been increasing reliance on formal qualifications or certification for jobs. ○​ This process has, in turn, led to credential inflation (also known as credential creep, academic inflation, or degree inflation), the process of inflation of the minimum credentials required for a given job and the simultaneous devaluation of the value of diplomas and degrees. ○​ These trends are also associated with grade inflation, a tendency to award progressively higher academic grades for work that would have received lower grades in the past. ​ A NEO -MARXIST PERSPECTIVE ON EDUCATION ○​ Neo-Marxism is a Marxist school of thought encompassing 20th Century approaches that amend or extend Marxism and Marxist theory, as well as post-structuralism and post-modernism ○​ Neo-Marxism encompasses a group of beliefs that have in common rejection of economic or class determinism and a belief in the semi autonomy of change. ○​ Neo-Marxists believe the economic system creates a wealthy class of owners and a poor class of workers. They also believe that certain social institutions such as churches, prisons and schools have been created to maintain the division between the powerful and the powerless (structures) ○​ Neo-Marxism comes under the broader framework of the New Left:  ​ Critical Theory ​ Cultural Studies ​ Post-Structuralism ​ Feminist Approaches ​ A NEO -MARXIST PERSPECTIVE ON EDUCATION - video ○​ “Killing imagination” ○​ How we can take away students' agency ​ STARTING TO THINK ABOUT EDUCATIONAL INEQUALITY ○​ How does education affect the life chances of different groups in society? ○​ Why do some social groups generally “win” in terms of educational outcomes and others “lose”? ○​ What do pupils learn at school apart from the official curriculum ○​ Is education a means of liberating people or of controlling them? ○​ What is the relationship between educational outcomes and economic success for individuals for wider society? ​ GLOBALIZATION THEORY ​ Globalization the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide. ​ This process has seemingly led towards increasing connectedness and interdependence of world cultures and economies. ​ While globalization has a long history (including colonialism and mercantilism) developments in information technology have arguably increased the pace and extent of globalization. ​ The globalization of Education can be understood as the integration and application of similar education systems and knowledge throughout the world across the borders, often focused on access, quality & deployment of formal education worldwide ​ GLOBALIZATION HUMAN CAPITAL THEORY & SKILLS - video (didnt watch) ​ ISOMORPHISM THEORY ○​ Isomorphism is a similarity of the processes or structure of on organization to those of another, be it the result of imitation or independent development under similar constraints. ○​ DiMaggio & Powell ~ Iron Cage ​ Organizational structure, which used to arise from the rules of efficiency in the marketplace, now arise from the institutional constraints imposed by the state and the professions. The efforts to achieve rationality with uncertainty and constraint lead to homogentiety of structure ○​ There are three main types of institutional isomorphism: normative, coercive and mimetic ○​ Isomorphism in the context of globalization, is an idea of contemporary national societies that is addressed by the institutionalization of world models constructed and propagated through global cultural and associational processes. ○​ Thus, such ideas suggest that the trajectory of change in social/political units is towards homogenization around the world ​ NEOLIBERALISM THEORY - (schools more like a business) ○​ Neo-liberalism is a term used to describe the 20th century resurgence of 19th century ideas associated with free-market capitalism. ​ It is generally associated with policies of economic liberalization, including privatization, deregulation, globalization, free trade, austerity and reductions in government spending in order to increase the role of the private sector in the economy and society. ​ In education, reform efforts have been greatly influenced by ideas surrounding neoliberalism: ○​ Market-based choice reforms ○​ Privatization (private good) ○​ Commodification ○​ Austerity ○​ Labour Market Focus ​ NEOLIBERALISM IN EDUCATION? ○​ Market-Oriented Approach: Neoliberalism emphasizes the application of market principles, promoting competition, privatization, and the reduction of government control in education systems. ○​ Standardization and Accountability: Neoliberalism advocates for more standardized testing and accountability measures, aiming to assess and improve performance, often through performance-based incentives and/or school rankings and competition. ○​ Individual Responsibility: Neoliberalism views education as a personal investment, placing responsibility on individuals to develop skills for the labor market, often shifting the focus from education as a public good to a private commodity. ○​ Vocationalism: Neoliberalism in education encourages vocational training, aligning curricula with labor market demands, prioritizing job-specific skills over broader educational goals, and promoting education that directly prepares individuals for employment. ​ About getting a job ​ NEOLIBERALISM - video (didnt watch) ​ POSTMODERNISM THEORY ○​ Post-Modernists argue that post-modern society is different to modern society (changing around 1950), so much so that it requires new methods of study and new theoretical frameworks. ○​ Essentially, what is different, according to Post-Modernists, is that those stable institutions which used to bind us together have much less influence now, and with the rise of globalization and New Media technologies, individuals are more “free” to construct their culture and identity that they once were. ○​ Thus, there is no single “truth” -- but individuals instead construct their own views and realities ○​ Examples in Education could include: ​ Individualism (personalization)  ​ Diversity (options) ​ Markets (choice) ​ Technology (knowledge) ​ POSTMODERNISM IN EDUCATION Lecture 4 ​ Key Concepts ○​ Voluntary Education ○​ Compulsory Schooling ○​ Universal Education ○​ Common School ○​ Alternative School ○​ Knowledge Economy ○​ Lifelong Learning ​ DISCUSSION: Compulsory Schooling - Why do we HAVE to attend Schools? ​ To get credentials ​ 1. Economic argument - more schooling we have, more taxes we pay and prepares for careers ​ Educated society - majority being literate now compared to in past ​ Social argument - children are taught the same things..e.g.,) be nice to others ​ 3. If not in school, children would likely be working - point of schooling was mainly to ensure children were not being put to work in places like factories → remove child labour ​ Prevent kids from getting into trouble by keeping them busy ​ 4. Nation building - idea schools can be used as tool to build Canadian identity/country identity in students ​ 2. Technical complexity - learn skills ​ COMPULSORY EDUCATION ○​ 1. Economic/Industrialization ○​ 2. Technical Complexity ○​ 3. Child Susceptibility ○​ 4. Nation-Building ○​ 5. Other ?...... ○​ Guppy & Davis Pg. 57-58 ​ SCHOOL EXPANSION ○​ Early education in Canada can be generally understood as a patchwork of informal “schools” or “educations” ○​ Ex- Early French “petites écoles”, British grammar schools, indigenous education approaches  ○​ While the history of education in Canada dates backs hundreds of years, Confederation in 1867 sets the date where we might begin to examine the development and expansion of “formal” educational systems (previously described as Common Schools) ○​ Looking to these 150 years or so, we can say that the history of formal education is quite “new” in Canada ○​ The post WWII period saw the expansion of education at both the K-12 and tertiary levels – both in Canada and globally ○​ This growth has largely continued over the years since ○​ Since 1990, higher education enrolments levels have surged ○​ Now, in many cases, both the “school” as well as “higher education” have become more readily part of the “common experience” ○​ However, thinking historically, we should be aware that this is only part of a recent trend and may at some point shift ○​ The expansion of schooling slowly but surely let to a SYSTEM of education in the form of school progression. ○​ This system gradually expanded to include more functions—teachers, students, administrators, etc. ○​ Schools need to be thought of not just as placed for “education”, but also has huge (bureaucratic) systems that are deeply entrenched into our societies. ○​ The history of Indian/Aboriginal/Indigenous Education in Canada presents a 100+ year legacy reflecting a variety of historical, cultural & political dimensions which have and continue to be scrutinized. ○​ Most notably, the history of residential schools demonstrates both colonial legacies as well issues with compulsory education ○​ Similar issues can be seen with segregated schools across the country in the past as well as current debates around such issues ○​ Historical legacies therefore continue to impact Indigenous education to this very day with contemporary issues and challenges remaining extremely salient and important. ​ SCHOOL EXPANSION LEGACY: video ​ KEY DEBATES IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION ○​ The history of Education in Canada sets the foundation for several key issues which continue to this very day: ○​ Religious Education - public/catholic schools - people tend to fight over religion and whether religious values taught to children in school ○​ Language Education - Canada is a bilingual country and should be able to get an education in either ○​ Centralization - schoolboard represents the community and should make decisions on curricular vs centralized body such as the education board or ministry of education (which may be more removed from schools or the communities) ○​ Funding - who is going to pay for education? Taxpayers or should family pay? ○​ The foundation for education in Canada can be then understood as a political development rather than a “natural” one  ○​ We can also so that many issues present since the beginnings of formal, universal systems of public schooling remain with us to this very day ​ KEY DEBATES IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION ○​ 1. Public accessibility. ​ All persons of school age should have a right to free access to schooling. ○​ 2. Equal opportunity. ​ All children should receive equal opportunity to benefit from schooling, regardless of factors such as their culture, gender, sexual orientation, ability, and so on. ​ E.g., school that is close to childs home vc child that needs to ride bus for an hour and a half - one child can have a quick walk, whereas other is stuck on a bus for 3 hours a day ○​ 3. Public funding. ​ The costs of schooling should be borne by government so that the quality of schooling received by a student is not related to the ability of the student or their parents to pay for that schooling. ○​ 4. Public control. ​ Decisions about the nature of public schools are made through public political processes, by persons who are elected at large to carry out this responsibility. ○​ 5. Public accountability. ​ Public schools act in the interests of the public and are answerable to the public for what is taught and for the quality of the experiences provided to students. ​ EDUCATION & “LIFELONG LEARNING” ○​ Generally, the idea that learning needs to be implemented from the early childhood years right through to adulthood ○​ Lifelong learning-- Is not limited to formal school education -- It starts from the moment we are born and ends in our death. ○​ Learning can no longer be divided into a place and time to acquire knowledge (school) and a place and time to apply the knowledge acquired (workplace). ○​ Adult Education and Workplace Learning ○​ “learning to learn” ​ EDUCATION & THE “KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY” ○​ An economy in which the production of goods and services is based primarily upon knowledge-intensive activities. ○​ A knowledge-intensive activity involves the collection, analysis and synthesis of information. ○​ Knowledge is now being produced at an increasingly rapid rate ○​ Therefore, individuals need to upgrade and reinvent skills all the time ○​ Technologies have become ever more complex– can learn something new everyday ○​ From Industrial to Post-Industrial Society ​ Knowledge Workers ​ Technological Determinism  ​ Globalization ​ AI and Automation ​ INTERNATIONALIZATION ○​ Education has also expanded in the era of globalization—especially higher education ○​ Many students now cross and traverse the world as they seek educational programs and credentials in other countries ○​ Internationalization demonstrates the influence of expanded schooling in a global era where individuals continue to seek out educational opportunities—for a variety of reasons. ​ SCHOOLS & SOCIETY INTERNATIONALIZATION? : video ​ KEY QUESTION: Internationalization ○​ What might the internationalization of higher education tell us about the connection between schooling & society? ​ EXPANDING CURRICULA & FUNCTIONS ○​ Schools are now places where children and students are expected to learn much more than what we might call “knowledge”. ○​ The expansion of curricula has led to not only the expanded functions of the school, but also more and more offerings and choices—often leading to the lengthening of the schooling experience.  ○​ Examples including new and additional credentials, job training, as well as new social roles such as social, physiological and psychological services. ○​ Again, we should at least question this expansion, both in terms of our roles and expectations as teachers, as well as to perhaps begin to define or else limit the role of the school in any given society. ​ COMPULSORY SCHOOLING EXPANDED ○​ As we spend more and more time in schools, could/should post-secondary education become free/mandatory? ○​ What about pre-school? ​ COMPULSORY SCHOOLING EXPANDED ○​ Schooling Expanded? ​ What exactly are/should schools be responsible for? ​ Pg 71 ​ “No other institution has been granted so much faith to address a multiplicity of social problems. “ ​ COMPULSORY SCHOOLING EXPANDED: video ​ EDUCATION & ALTERNATIVES ○​ School choices and options have continued to grow ○​ Ex- think about how many university programs are offered at Brock ○​ These ideas and values are reflective in our institutions: ​ Competition ​ Differentiation ​ Personalization ​ Individualization ​ Specialization ​ Education vs training ○​ While such concerns reflect contemporary schooling, they also bring into question fundamental questions concerning the individual vs the social i.e. ~ What is the purpose of education and who is it for? ​ EDUCATION & PROFIT ○​ Whereas there appeared to be a variety of socially-focused arguments for the establishment and expansion of universal education, today education and schooling have also been increasingly brought under the conditions of the market ○​ That is, schools are expected to behave capitalistically according to the values found under such relations ○​ The profit imperative (found under neoliberal theory) indicates that schools are found to be new sources of profit SCHOOL EXPANSION: IS IT ALL ABOUT EFFICIENCY? Davies & Guppy, p. 74 See a recent essay! COVID19 & The Ongoing Problem of Educational Efficiency https://journals.library.brocku.ca/brocked/index.php/ho me/article/view/837 ​ FINAL REFLECTION: When we think about the expansion of schooling in which direction(s) might we go from here? ​ Illich: DESCHOOLING SOCIETY ○​ Ivan Illich was a social critic who argued that modern institutions like schools, healthcare, and transportation systems often hinder human freedom and autonomy, making people dependent on bureaucratic structures. ​ Was against the structure of schools ○​ Illich advocated for the use of "convivial tools"— technologies and systems that empower individuals and communities, fostering autonomy and cooperation rather than domination by experts or institutions. ○​ One of Illich's most influential ideas was the concept of Deschooling---he proposed dismantling formal education systems. He believed schools create social inequality and limit the development of critical, independent thinkers ​ Not going through schooling system/process ○​ Critique of Institutionalized Education ​ Illich argues for the idea of dismantling formal schooling systems, as they are seen to perpetuate social inequality, limit creativity, and stifle personal growth. ○​ Advocacy for Informal Learning ​ It promotes self-directed, experiential, and community-based learning, arguing that education should occur naturally in everyday life rather than through rigid institutions. ○​ Shift in Social Structures ​ Illich argues for a broader societal shift, where individuals take control of their own education, and traditional power structures associated with schooling are diminished. ○​ DESCHOOLING SOCIETY ​ Challenging Dominant Social Paradigms ✓ ​ Rejection of Institutional Authority ✓ ​ Advocacy for Self-Sufficiency ✓ ​ Critique of Technological Progress ✓ Lecture 5 ​ Key concepts ○​ Social Stratification ○​ Educational Streaming ○​ Accommodation ○​ Competition ○​ Egalitarianism  ○​ Equity ○​ Vertical Equity ○​ Horizontal Equity ○​ Social Mobility ​ Stratification ○​ SOCIAL STRATIFICATION REFERS TO A SOCIETY'S CATEGORIZATION OF ITS PEOPLE INTO GROUPS BASED ON SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS LIKE WEALTH, INCOME, RACE, EDUCATION, ETHNICITY, GENDER, OCCUPATION, SOCIAL STATUS, OR DERIVED POWER (SOCIAL AND POLITICAL). ○​ STRATIFICATION IS THE RELATIVE SOCIAL POSITION OF PERSONS WITHIN A SOCIAL GROUP, CATEGORY, GEOGRAPHIC REGION, OR SOCIAL UNIT. ​ ​ KEY QUESTION: How can forms of social stratification be explained? i.e- going back to nature/nurture? Natural or Socially Constructed? ​ KEY QUESTION: What are some examples of stratification found within schools? ​ STRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATIONS ○​ Thinking structurally asks us to consider the nature and shape of schools as they have been, are, and will continue to evolve. ○​ We try not to place a value judgement initially, but ratherto question assumptions and better understand the phenomena taking place ○​ Examples:  ​ Opportunity - How are schools organized? ​ Funding - How are schools funded? ​ Accessibility - Who attends schools? ​ Control - Who makes schooling decisions? ​ Accountability - Who is responsible for what? ​ STRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATIONS ○​ Guppy & Davies identity 3 main currents for analysis today: ○​ 1. Egalitarianism ○​ 2. Competition & Choice ○​ 3. Selection ○​ Many of these key ideas were considered last ○​ week as well! ​ KEY CONCEPTS ○​ Egalitarianism (Accommodation) ○​ Economic utility (human capital theory) ○​ Enhanced equity (human rights) ○​ Postmodernism (individuality) ​ What is the structural result of these trends on schools? ​ ​ Accommodation and Internationalization ​ ​ EGALITARIANISM (ACCOMMODATION) ​ Is grade inflation real? ○​ What was your experience in say high school? ○​ Does it matter? Why or why not? ○​ Can grades go up indefinitely? Whatmight happen in the future? Why? ​ KEY QUESTION: Reflect back to our earlier discussion concerning the idea of “university for all” – does egalitarianism mean that everyone school go to school? ​ For as long as they want? For “free”?? ​ KEY CONCEPTS ​ Choice & Competition ○​ Credential seeking behaviours ○​ New Rankings/Hierarchies ○​ Lower government spending (neoliberalism) ○​ Marketization & Commodification ​ What is the structural result of these trends on schools? ​ Is it a good idea to compare Schools? Why or why not? School Choices How much choice should parents and students have in schooling? Can/should schools “choose” which students they want? KEY QUESTION What might these admissions scandals tell us about selection and stratification? About “meritocracy”? CONCLUSION ​ Looking at stratification in education shows us how different forms of status and selection and organization have and continue to occur ​ Such trend will likely continue to push upwards into higher education and beyond ​ New developments such as technology will impact forms of stratification as well ​ Nevertheless, we still see school as important places for stratifying individual in society Lecture 6 ​ KEY CONCEPTS ○​ Class ○​ Capital ○​ Socioeconomic Status (SES) ○​ Economic Inequality ○​ Meritocracy ○​ Class Reproduction ○​ Maximally maintained inequality (MMI) ○​ Effectively maintained inequality (EMI) ○​ Summer Setback” (COVID) ​ CLASS ANALYSIS - how much wealth you or your family has ○​ Class analysis is a theoretical approach in the social sciences.  ○​ Class analysis is research in sociology, politics and economics (or education) from the point of view of the stratification of the society into dynamic classes. ○​ It explores the determinants and consequences of social phenomena in terms of class and class relations. ○​ It implies that there is no universal or uniform social outlook, rather that there are fundamental conflicts that exist inherent to how society is currently organized. ○​ Class analysis views society as being divided into hierarchical strata that have unequal access to material resources, power, and influence (critical theory, Marx). ​ CAPITAL ○​ “Capital” generally refers to “resources” ○​ In economics, capital consists of assets used for the production of goods and services. A typical example is the machinery used in factories. ○​ In the field of sociology, capital comprises the social assets of a person (education, intellect, style of speech, style of dress, etc.) that promote social mobility in a stratified society. (Social Capital) ○​ Pierre Bourdieu - Social/Cultural Capital ​ Refers to the collection of symbolic elements such as skills, tastes, posture, clothing, mannerisms, material belongings, credentials, etc. that one acquires through being part of a particular social class. ○​ Concept continues to expand we now discuss other forms of capital (social, cultural, economic, academic, human, etc) ​ SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS (SES) ○​ SES has been found to be, overall, the strongest predictor of schooling outcomes ○​ Research indicates that children from low-SES households and communities develop academic skills slower than children from higher SES groups. ○​ School systems in low-SES communities are often underresourced, negatively affecting students’ academic progress and outcomes ○​ Children from low-SES families are less likely to have experiences that encourage the development of fundamental skills that result in school success as well as being less likely to have direct access to learning resources. ○​ High school dropout rates are higher for low-income families ○​ The likelihood of attending university is higher for children from high-SES backgrounds. ○​ Schooling outcomes such as your career and future schooling - strongest predictor is SES ​ ​ KEY QUESTION: Has more schooling brought more/less (economic) equality? ​ SOCIO-ECONOMIC INEQUALITY IN CANADA ​ Rising income inequality continues to be an economic, social and political concern both internationally and here in Canada. Inequality may have only risen modestly, on average, across the country, but economic forces continue to concentrate both income and wealth among Canada’s richest. This represents a serious concern for our country’s standard of living — high levels of inequality can be a substantial barrier to future economic growth ​ https://www.cpacanada.ca/en/the-cpa-profession/about-cpa-canada/key-activiti es ​ /public-policy-government-relations/economic-policy-research/income-inequa lity-canada Example: ​ Canada’s 100 highest paid CEOs made 227 times more than the average worker made in 2018, surpassing all previous records, according to a new report from the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives (CCPA) ​ https://www.policyalternatives.ca/newsroom/news-releases/high-ceo-pay-shatt ers-previous-records-now-227-times-more-average-worker-pay ​ ​ CLASS ANALYSIS ​ ​ KEY QUESTION: How is economic inequality produced or reproduced through schooling? ​ CRITICAL PEDAGOGY ○​ Critical pedagogy is a theory or approach that encourages students to examine power structures and patterns of inequality in society.  ○​ It's based on critical theory (Marx) and was first developed in the 1970s by Brazilian educator Paulo Freire. ○​ Critical pedagogy views teaching as a political act, and rejects the idea that knowledge is neutral. ○​ Critical pedagogy is based on the world experience of the students, and encourages students to explore answers for themselves. ○​ Critical pedagogy encourages students and instructors to challenge assumptions, and to critique education for its political nature. ○​ Critical pedagogy aims to empower students to become agents of change, and to advocate for their rights and the rights of their communities. ​ STUDIES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION ​ Critical Pedagogy-Classic ○​ Paulo Friere ○​ Bowles & Gintis ○​ Paul Willis ​ Critical Pedagogy-Modern ○​ Michael Apple ○​ Peter McLaren ○​ Henry Giroux ○​ Stanley Aronowitz PAULO FREIRE Paulo Freire ​ Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970) ​ In his seminal work, Freire outlines how oppression functions through the mechanism of class inequality and education ​ Karl Marx’s ideas were foremost influential on Freire’s own philosophy. ​ Among the ideas from Marx that influenced Freire are Marx’s class consciousness, his concept of labor, and false consciousness ​ Freire includes a detailed Marxist class analysis in his exploration of the relationship between the colonizer and the colonized. ​ Freire calls traditional pedagogy the "banking model of education" because it treats the student as an empty vessel to be filled with knowledge, like a piggy bank ​ He argues that pedagogy should instead treat the learner as a co-creator of knowledge ​ Updates https://daily.jstor.org/paulo-freires-pedagogy-of-the-oppressed-at-fifty/ BOWLES & GINTIS Bowles & Gintis ​ Schooling in Capitalist America (1976) ​ A classic Marxist analysis of education which describes how school prepares workers for a life of exploitation in the capitalist system. Unlike functionalists like Parsons, Bowles & Gintis dismiss the idea that the education system is meritocratic, instead describing a system that reproduces social class inequality. ​ They make a compelling case that the economic status of parents—rather than effort at school or educational achievement—is the best predictor of their children’s future ​ A key aspect of Bowles & Gintis' famous study was the correspondence principle ​ That is, that school is deliberately made to be similar to the workplace.  ​ Schools are places w hidden curriculum and teach students to be good workers, reproducing class relations and schools are like a factory ​ Bowles & Gintis also explore the idea of a hidden curriculum - i.e. the things that education teaches us that are not part of the formal curriculum ​ 2001 Updates https://www.umass.edu/preferen/gintis/soced.pdf PAUL WILLIS Paul Willis ​ Learning to Labour by (1977) is an ethnographic study of twelve working class ‘lads’ from a school in Birmingham conducted between 1972 and 1975 -- 18 months observing the lads in school and then a further 6 months following them into work. ​ The study aimed to uncover the question of how and why “working class kids get working class jobs” ​ His study focused on "the lads" - a group of working-class boys who were disruptive, misbehaved and had a very negative attitude to education. They had formed what ​ Willis called an anti-school subculture. ​ Willis does not only undermine the arguments of Parsons or Durkheim, but also of his fellow Marxists, Bowles & Gintis ​ He concluded that school was not working very well as an agent of socialisation: there was no value consensus here: pupils were actively rejecting the norms and values of society. As such, they were a long way from the hard-working, docile, obedience workers ​ While Willis was coming from a Marxist perspective, his study does suggest that working-class boys actively chose to fail, rather than the system being designed by the capitalist class to have this outcome. ​ Asked questions like why do working class kids tend to drop out of school ro work in lower class jobs? ○​ Found students who were viewed as bad students or dropouts were actively resisting and seemingly understood schools weren’t made for them MICHAEL APPLE Michael Apple ​ Has Apple has written extensively on the politics of educational reform, on the relationship between culture and power, and on education for social justice ​ He has worked educators, unions, dissident groups, and government throughout the world on changing educational policy and practice towards critical pedagogy Books - Can education change society? (2013) - Education and Power (1982) - Ideology and Curriculum (1979) HENRY GIROUX Henry Giroux ​ Is an American-Canadian scholar and cultural critic. ​ One of the founding theorists of critical pedagogy ​ He is best known for his pioneering work in public pedagogy, cultural studies, youth studies, higher education, media studies, and critical theory.  ​ His primary research areas are: cultural studies, youth studies, critical pedagogy, popular culture, media studies, social theory, neoliberalism, the politics of higher and public education, and the politics of the civic imagination. ​ He is particularly interested in what he calls the war on youth, the corporatization of higher education, the politics of neoliberalism, public pedagogy, the educative nature of politics, the rise of various youth movements across the globe, and the assault on civic literacy, the collapse of public memory, and the rise of fascist politics and apartheid pedagogy. ​ Giroux had published more than 70 books, 200 chapters, and 500 articles! PETER MCLAREN Peter McLaren ​ A Canadian-American scholar of critical education and class consciousness ​ Did his masters of education at Brock! ​ McLaren is known as one of the leading architects of critical pedagogy nd for his scholarly writings on critical literacy, the sociology of education, cultural studies, critical ethnography, and Marxist theory. ​ McLaren is a faculty member at the Institute of Critical Pedagogy at The Global Center for Advanced Studies and lectures worldwide on education's politics Books ​ McLaren is the author and editor of over forty-five books and hundreds of scholarly articles and chapters ​ McLaren, P. (2005) ​ Capitalists and Conquerors ​ McLaren, P. (1995). ​ Critical Pedagogy and Predatory Culture AGAINST SCHOOLING? Stanley Aronowitz ​ In Against Schooling, Stanley Aronowitz raises an alarm about the current state of education in the USA. ​ Discipline and control over students, Aronowitz argues, are now the primary criteria of success, and genuine learning is sacrificed to a new educational militarism. ​ In an age where school districts have imposed testing, teachers must teach to test, and both teacher and student are robbed of their autonomy and creativity. Further Reading https://ices.library.ubc.ca/index.php/workplace/article/view/ 184699/184289 REFLECTION: What can schools actually do to reduce economic inequality? -​ Not much you as one teacher can do to address these inequalities overall -​ As teachers, can talk about it PLAYING THE GAME OR GAMING THE SYSTEM? School Admissions Scandal https://www.nytimes.com/news-e vent/college-admissions-scandal The Mad, Mad World of Niche Sports Among Ivy League– Obsessed Parents https://tribunecontentagency.co m/article/the-mad-mad-world-of- niche-sports-among-ivy-league-o bsessed-parents/ HIGHER EDU & PRESTIGE AS CLASS The Prestige Hierarchy: Five Universities Trained One Of Every Eight Tenure-Track Faculty At Doctoral Universities https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaeltnietzel/2022/09/22/the-prestige-hierarchy-five-u niversities-trained-one-of-every-eight-tenure-track-faculty-at-doctoral-universities/?sh =1b10b88a1de7 https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2022/09/23/new-study-finds-80-faculty-trained- 20-institutions https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-02998-w COVID & NEW EDUCATION INEQUALITIES? How race, income and ‘opportunity hoarding’ will shape Canada’s back-to-school season https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-how-race-income-and-opportunity-hoarding -will-s hape-canadas-back/ Educators worry gap may grow for disadvantaged students stuck at home https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-tdsb-aims-to-bridge-gaps-in-at-home-educa tion/ COVID-19 school closures accelerate education inequities in Ontario https://www.utoronto.ca/news/covid-19-school-closures-accelerate-education-inequities-ontar io-u-t- researchers One in five Ontario parents say kids fallen behind during COVID https://www.fraserinstitute.org/blogs/one-in-five-ontario-parents-say-kids-fallen-behind-durin g-covi d EXAMPLE? FRENCH IMMERSION How French immersion inadvertently created class and cultural divides at schools across Canada ​ Kids who go to french immersion tend to be from middle or higher class families ○​ Creates another inequality ​ https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-french-immersion-program-schools- divide/ EXAMPLE? SCHOOL FUNDRAISING Fundraising widens gap between have and have-not students,report finds https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/fundraising-widens-gap-between-have-and-have-not- students-report-finds/article_912df0e2-4a9e-5b68-ab2f-31729617fdbd.html https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1121396.pdf SOLUTION? BASIC INCOME The UBI debate: What universal basic income could look like in Canada https://dailyhive.com/canada/canada-universal-basic-income https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/canada-is-considering-a-guaranteed-universal-ba sic-income-program-here-s-what-that-means/article_98a4ee99-150c-50b5-8867-0203efc 51520.html CONCLUSION ​ Class continues to be an extremely important factor and determinant in schooling and achievement ​ SES remains a strong predictor in schooling outcomes. ​ Public schooling has always held the implicit intention of reducing inequality, not expanding it. ​ As wealth inequality appears to be growing, this raise questions and concerns for schooling and educational equality, access and achievements across a number of intersections. Examples and critical thinking - personal examples such as your schooling what family has said or what was discussed in class, why important to look at cases Lecture 7: KEY CONCEPTS ​ Equality ​ Equity ​ Social Equity ​ Equity Categories ​ Gender Gap ​ Egalitarianism ​ Institutionalization ​ Labelling Theory EQUITY CATEGORIES ​ As Chapter 7 highlights, thinking as sociologists, we have to consider the changing nature of equity in terms of labels and categories, as well as what they might mean: ○​ Race ○​ Gender  ○​ Sexuality ○​ Ability ○​ Indigeneity ○​ Neurodiversity ○​ Geography ○​ Age ○​ Other? ​ What are, or might be, new or (re)emerging forms or categories of educational inequity? KEY QUESTION What is most important to you as an educator? Why? Equity Equality KEY QUESTION: Why have equity considerations become more salient in education in recent years? ONTARIO EDUCATION EQUITY ACTION PLAN (2017) http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/about/education_equity_plan_en.pdf http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/policyfunding/equity.html EQUITY CATEGORIZATIONS & INTERSECTIONS EQUITY ISSUES ​ DEI - diversity, equity inclusion initiatives (USA EXAMPLE) ○​ E.g., universities accepting a certain percentage of Black, Asian, etc students vs. no-race disclosure acceptances ​ CRITICAL RACE THEORY ​ INDIGENIZATION IN EDUCATION ○​ Increasingly important and want to include this in our classrooms ​ CATHOLIC EDUCATION ○​ issue , Ontario - publicly funded → is this fair?? ○​ No other religion gets own publically funded system, so why Catholic? ​ MENTAL HEALTH & WELLNESS ○​ Assessment and evaluation, treatment of these in schools ​ TECHNOLOGY ○​ More of a topic during covid  ○​ What happens if students does not have internet, a computer at home? Education inequality can become issue then ​ SEX EDUCATION (CURRICULUM) ○​ Role of sex education and who has right to teach it - parents or teachers? ○​ What happens to students who odn’t get it - what happens in terms of their health compared to those who had it? ​ THE “DECLINE” OF BOYS ○​ Girls have been seen to be doing better in schools, with boys falling behind in comparison ○​ People tend to now look at issue of males in schools ​ PERSPECTIVES ON SCHOOL DRESS CODES ○​ Comes from feminist and critical theories ○​ Females treated more unfairly than males based on dress codes ○​ What does clothing have to do with schooling and education ? ○​ Uniforms ? - most catholics schools offer pants instead of kilts for girls ​ GENDER & WASHROOMS ○​ Parents, religious groups or communities may become very upset or debate a gender neutral washroom ​ STANDARDIZED TESTING ○​ EQAO, LSAT, MCAT etc ○​ Students from marginzalied and racialized groups tend to do worse ○​ Some countries these testings affect how much money your school gets - could be shut down if students do not perform well ​ Not so much of an issue in Ontario ​ ONTARIO SCHOOL BOARD ELECTIONS ○​ Connect to U.S when electing school board members ○​ Anti-trans, racial comment sometimes come out by members KEY QUESTION: How is equity constructed and reconstructed? 1.​ Public accessibility. ​ All persons of school age should have a right to free access to schooling. 2.​ Equal opportunity. ​ All children should receive equal opportunity to benefit from schooling, regardless of factors such as their culture, gender, sexual orientation, ability, and so on. 3.​ Public funding. ​ The costs of schooling should be borne by government so that the quality of schooling received by a student is not related to the ability of the student or their parents to pay for that schooling. 4.​ Public control. ​ Decisions about the nature of public schools are made through public political processes, by persons who are elected at large to carry out this responsibility. 5.​ Public accountability. ​ Public schools act in the interests of the public and are answerable to the public for what is taught and for the quality of the experiences provided to students. KEY QUESTIONS Consider the notions/definitions of equity within the broad context of schooling. ​ What exactly do they mean? ​ How do we construct “categories”? Are these the same as labels? ​ Past, present, future? ​ Streaming ​ Labelling ​ Policies ​ Assessment ​ Resource Allocation ​ Inclusion CONCLUSION ​ Equity is not a static definition or category, but rather shifts and evolves over time in response to fundamental tensions found within education as a social enterprise ​ Both Equality and Equity in education should be viewed as ideals which shape the nature of key debates in educational administration ​ Equity definitions can be difficult (say in comparison to SES) and thus often left open to both interpretation and debate ​ Equity considerations appear to reflect larger societal currents and values as well as politics at any given moment Lecture 8: KEY CONCEPTS ​ Centralization /Decentralization ​ Rationalization ​ Professionalization ​ Bureaucracy ​ Efficiency ​ Isomorphism ​ Progressivism ​ Deschooling ​ School Choice ​ Neoliberalism Design a School! ​ How would students be admitted? ​ How will the school be funded? ​ What will be the purpose/mission of the school? ​ What grades/levels? Why? ​ What curriculum? Why? ​ What kinds of teachers? Why? ​ What considerations are there for equity? KEY QUESTIONS  ​ How did we organize schools in the past and why? ​ How do we organize schools today and why? ​ How might school organization change moving forward and why? ORGANIZATION OF CANADIAN EDUCATION KEY TRENDS ​ More expansion ○​ Such as more schools, students in school, educators, educational spending, etc. ​ More centralization (rather than earlier decentralization) ○​ This include further consolidation (less rather than more school boards) ○​ Can result in less autonomy ​ More structure (in terms of rationalization) & Services ○​ Organization by age, grade, ability, specialization, etc. ○​ Focus on (customer) services ​ More Professionalization ○​ This includes teacher organization (ex- federations of labour), credentials, teacher education ​ More Privatization ○​ More choice, Limited in the Canadian context, but still visible KEY DEBATES FRAMING EDUCATIONAL STRUCTURES 1. Public accessibility. ​ All persons of school age should have a right to free access to schooling. 2. Equal opportunity. ​ All children should receive equal opportunity to benefit from schooling, regardless of factors such as their culture, gender, sexual orientation, ability, and so on. 3. Public funding. ​ The costs of schooling should be borne by government so that the quality of schooling received by a student is not related to the ability of the student or their parents to pay for that schooling. 4. Public control. ​ Decisions about the nature of public schools are made through public political processes, by persons who are elected at large to carry out this responsibility. 5. Public accountability ​ Public schools act in the interests of the public and are answerable to the public for what is taught and for the quality of the experiences provided to students REFLECTION: How do we change & improve schools? Comprehensive Specialized ​ Specialized - such as science schools, arts schools, etc ​ Comprehensive - covers everything with no specialization SCHOOL CHANGE IS ALWAYS HARD! EXAMPLE- TRANSPORTATION ​ How long should students take to get to school? SCHOOL CHOICE? What is school “choice” exactly? SCHOOL CHOICE? ​ Parental Autonomy ○​ School choice allows parents to select the educational setting they believe best suits their child's needs, offering options beyond the assigned public school, such as charter schools, private schools, or homeschooling. ​ Competition and Quality ○​ Advocates argue that school choice fosters competition among schools, which can drive improvements in quality, efficiency, and innovation in education. ​ Educational Equity ○​ While school choice aims to provide more options for all families, it can sometimes widen disparities. Families with greater financial resources or knowledge of the system may have more access to high-performing schools, while lower-income or marginalized families may face barriers, such as transportation or admission requirements. SCHOOL CHOICE & ED REFORM Relevant today! What the presidential candidates have done − and where they stand − on education DISCUSSION ​ A criticism of school choice has been that parents who want to exert choice for their children must be able to do so (rational agency). ​ Are parents the best decision-makers for their child’s education? (control) If so, are all parents able to make choices equally? DO WE NEED TO REFORM?? ​ Many pushes for reform claim schools are in crisis ​ What is this educational crisis? Does it exist? (where?) ​ What is the dominant discourse concerning the state of education today? Are schools to blame for these issues? ​ Whose interest would be best served in a “education crisis”? (reform) ​ Who is gaining and who is losing out? ​ “Choice” ​ “Efficiency” ​ “Accountability” ​ “Success”  ​ “Competitiveness” ​ “Free-market” ​ “Customer Service” EDUCATIONAL MARKETS ​ School Choice ​ Marketization ​ Privatization ​ Commodification ​ Competition ​ Examples ○​ Vouchers ○​ Private School Funding ○​ Charter Schools ○​ Tax Credits ○​ Online Education ​ Should school be subject to market dynamics? ​ Should school be run more like businesses? ​ Should parents have different schooling choices available to them? ​ Who should pay for schooling and why (or how much)? ​ Does competition improve education? CASE STUDY CHARTER SCHOOLS Charter Schools Charter Schools - The Promise “School CHOICE” ​ Choice forms the basis of an examination of examining alternatives to “traditional” public schooling ​ The issues of choice brings into question several key dimensions concerning the nature of schooling in a liberal democracy. ​ There are many forms of school choice, charter schools being only one option. Charter Schools An Overview ​ Charter Schools can be described as semi- autonomous public schools ​ They operate within the public school system, but are free of certain policies, rules and regulations ​ They can be understood as “hybrid” schools– part public, part private.\ ​ Thus, they must respond to market pressures while remaining publicly accountable ​ Charters differ substantially across contexts ​ Have emerged over the past 30 years or so, in response to “failing” schools and school systems. ​ Are evident globally (albeit in various forms)  ​ Have been labelled as one of the most significant education reforms of the last 50 years Charter schools: Alberta ​ Alberta legislated charter schools in the province in 1994. ​ Was meant to be seen as an “experiment” to improve education in the province ​ Alberta itself has a strong history of school choice ​ There are 13 different charter schools (cap of 15) in the province today serving