Theme Three_ Social and Intellectual Challenge 1625-88 PDF Past Paper

Exam format (British history) [1625-88] Section A (2 questions but you choose 1) 1.​ Charles I 2.​ Oliver Cromwell 3.​ Charles II Section B (pick one) -​ Social (3 key questions) -​ Economic (3 key questions) Duration: 1:30 hours Introductory concepts: -​ Gradual population growt...

Exam format (British history) [1625-88] Section A (2 questions but you choose 1) 1.​ Charles I 2.​ Oliver Cromwell 3.​ Charles II Section B (pick one) -​ Social (3 key questions) -​ Economic (3 key questions) Duration: 1:30 hours Introductory concepts: -​ Gradual population growth (since 14th century) -​ Increased urbanisation -​ Changing role of women in society - women in prominent roles in religious radical groups —> influenced by the wars and religion -​ Development of new ideas on monarchy, nation, democracy, science *Use links in essay Notes from the article Life in the 17th Century - Local Histories century English Society -​ Population growth in the 17th century → 4 million in 1600 to 5 ½ million by 1700 -​ Expansion of glass, brick-making, iron, and coal mining industries 17th century society structure 1.​ Nobility 2.​ Gentry 3.​ Gentlemen → not extremely rich but well-off 4.​ Yeoman → farmers who owned land and lived comfortably 5.​ Craftsmen, tenant-farmers, and labourers → 50% of the population were well-off, 30% could eat meat 2-6 times weekly, and 20% were extremely poor Act of 1601 (Elizabethan Poor Law) -​ Parishes forced people to pay taxes to help the poor -​ Old and disabled were provided with support -​ Those who could work were provided jobs by the overseers but those who refused to work were whipped -​ Pauper’s children became apprentices -​ After 1610 → the punished were sent to a house of correction 17th century → the wealthy built houses along the Thames and the working class lived in the east (divide between the rich west and poor east) Early 17th century → paid water supply provided through pipes connected to reservoir 1600 → Westminster separate from London 1600 → people either walked, travelled by boat (if they were well-off enough), or hired a hackney carriage 1680s → oil lamps 1603, 1636, and 1655 → plague in London which killed many of the people BUT the population still grew since many poor people from the countryside moved to the big cities Banks (idea from the Dutch) -​ 17th century goldsmiths lent and changed money -​ 1640 → Charles I confiscated gold from the mint (London merchants) -​ People deposited money with goldsmiths and notes were used as receipts -​ Issuing of notes was more practical since customers could not withdraw gold at the same time -​ 1694 → Bank of England found Homes in the 17th century -​ The rich could afford walnut or mahogany furniture which was decorated using techniques like veneering (expensive wood over cheap wood), inlaying with mother-of-pearls in the hollows, or lacquering -​ 1680s → armchairs became more common in the homes of the rich -​ 17th century → Inigo Jones introduced the classic architectural style inspired by Greek and Roman styles and designed the Banqueting Hall -​ Many homes of the poor were rebuilt using stone or brick which were warmer and drier than wooden houses -​ The poor had chimneys by the late 17th century -​ Initially, the poor used linseed-oil soaked linen for windows but glass windows became more common as the price of glass went down -​ Crowded homes which had 2-3 rooms Food -​ Forks gained more popularity -​ New foods like pineapple and bananas were eaten by the rich -​ New drinks like chocolate, tea, and coffee came in -​ The poor usually ate bread, cheese, onions, pottage, and small pieces of fish and meat Clothes -​ Ruffs (starched collars) were worn by men but later became a large ruff collar -​ Farthingales were worn by women under their dresses but it was later discarded and shifts were worn underneath instead -​ Men wore breeches, stockings, boots, linen shirts, and doublets -​ Women would also wear black patches on their face to be fashionable Entertainment -​ Tennis, shuttlecock, pall mall, cards, and bowls were played -​ Board games like backgammon and chess were popular -​ The theatre resumed in 1660 with actresses playing female roles after being banned in 1642 due to Puritan disapproval Education -​ Petty school for infants from wealthy families -​ Upper-class girls had tutors though middle-class girls were taught by their mothers → subjects like writing, music, and needlework were taught -​ Boarding schools for girls became more common -​ Grammar schools for boys were strict → started at 6-7 and ended at 5-5:30 with corporal punishment for misbehaving boys (beaten with birch twigs) Transportation -​ 1635 → royal mail started when Charles I allowed the public to pay for messengers to send letters -​ Stagecoaches were expensive, inconvenient on spring roads, and were at high risk of being robbed by highwaymen -​ 1663 → opening of turnpike roads which required a payment that was used to maintain towns Medicine -​ 1628 → William Harvey discovered the process of blood circulation -​ Treatment of malaria using the cinchona tree’s bark was possible -​ Initial belief was the four fluids in the body: blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile -​ Late 17th century → toothbrushes were popularised in England (invented by China) -​ Average life expectancy was 35 → around ⅓ of people died before 16 Warfare -​ Flintlock replaced the firearms of matchlocks and wheel locks -​ The invention of the cartridge made soldiers not have to measure gunpowder in their gun -​ 2 branches of the army → cavalry (wheel-locked pistols and sabres) and the infantry (muskets and pikes) -​ 1680 → invention of the bayonet Scientific Revolution -​ Francis Bacon (1561-1626) said that careful observation and experiments were more reliable in finding out more about the natural world -​ 1645 → regular meetings attended by philosophers and mathematicians discussed science and philosophy -​ 1662 → Charles II created the Royal Society -​ 1661 → Robert Boyle wrote the Skeptical Chemist -​ 1687 → Issac Newton wrote the Principia Mathematica -​ Christopher Wren designed St Paul’s Cathedral -​ John Milton wrote Paradise Lost and Henry Purcell composed many popular works -​ Thomas Hobbe and Locke -​ Belief in witchcraft declined (last execution was in 1684) Key terms:  Gentry: the class immediately below the nobility who did not have to do manual labour and had the money and time to become involved in politics Nation state: a country that is united by a combination of political ideas, cultural, or ethnic ties Vagrants - traditionally used to call a person who would wander from town to town to seek a job or beg for money due to poverty. They were considered to be individuals who chose not to work despite their ability to and could be whipped or branded as punishment Poverty line - the minimum level of income needed to secure the basic necessities of life. Price inflation - the rate at which the general level of prices for everyday goods rises leading to a fall in purchasing power Content Why did the population of Britain increase in the Additional sections years 1625-88, and what impact did this have? notes/comments Population 1520-1680 —> drastic population increase from 2.5 million to over 5 Popular exam question: growth million people How significant was the Division of South east England vs North —> ¾ of the population role of migration in the lived in the South East while the North was sparsely populated population growth (Geographical difference since the North was more mountainous) experienced by Stuart Britain in the years Reasons for the increase in population 1625-88? (2018) 1.​ Improved agricultural methods -​ Enclosure of land (the fencing of land holdings into Migration was individually owned or rented fields [reserved for a sole IMPORTANT (20% of the landowner or tenant]) —> Prevented the unnecessary essay): duplication of crop production and increased the output yield 1.​ Many economic of crops and livestock migrants came -​ Happened during price inflation so landowners had to sell off from Europe to land contribute to -​ Increased areas under cultivation also contributed to a Britain’s industries sufficient supply of food for the population such as the cloth -​ —> BUT the enclosure of land drove away owners of small making farms who had to seek poor relief or became vagrants → Towns such as 2.​ Migration from Europe Cranbrook, Tenterden, -​ 1651 (2 years after the establishment of the and Maidstone received Commonwealth and religious toleration) —> immigrants many migrant weavers came to England from the Low Countries -​ 1600 —> 35% of Norwich’s population was made up of 2.​ Many migrants immigrants migrated to Britain -​ Majority of European migrants were from the Low Countries because of (countries in Northwestern Europe ex. Belgium and religious Luxemburg) —> worked as weavers persecution in -​ The Dutch became profitable in the city 1651 -​ Many skilled Dutch weavers moved to towns like Cranbrook, → Religious toleration Tenterden, and Maidstone (flourishing cloth trade) seemed to be an -​ 1585 —> 120 Dutch workers in Maidstone made English established policy which migrants have work to do as apprentices attracted many Protestant 3.​ Domestic peace Europeans  -​ 1484 (end of the Wars of the Roses) —> the country was 3.​ People from the peaceful (until the English Civil War) countryside -​ Population increased from 3 million to 4 million migrated to 4.​ Protestants migrated from Europe to Britain to escape English towns persecution and cities for 5.​ Recovery from The Great Plague of 1665( killed 100000 employment people in London) was faster opportunities -​ Eyam in Derbyshire’s child deaths were replaced by an → Towns such as Bristol adult population within 10 years→ maintained the population which was a port town growth that processed imports -​ Less worse than the Black Death of 1348 which reduced the from India and the population from 5 million to 1.5 million Americas attracted more -​ 1625 —> short-lived epidemics were reduced because the people to move there people were better at isolating the sick and containing the (large population of sickness ex. Closure of theatres 20000 people) Reasons for the decline in the growth of the population size: Migration was 1.​ The Civil Wars —> led to many deaths (around 200000 NOT/LESS important people) (80% of the iceberg): 2.​ Many non-conformists moved to America for the freedom 1.​ Period of of religion domestic peace 3.​ Late average age of marriage —> the War of -​ 1600→ fertility rate was higher because men and women Roses ended in married at a younger age of 26 and 24 1484 which made -​ 1650 —> fertility rate were low England peaceful -​ After 1680 —> the fertility rate increased again because of and reduced the the growth of London mortality rate —> -​ The average marriage age for men and women was 28 and contribution to the 26 which made the number of children per marriage lower population growth 2.​ Improvements in agriculture —> methods /such as the enclosure of land (fencing off of the land into privately owned plots of land) resulted in a higher crop yield of wheat and barley which could feed more people —> led to a lower mortality because of the adequate support of food which made the population increase 3.​ The improved recovery from plagues/diseases —> The isolation of the sick and the  containing of disease was significantly more common by 1525 ex. theatres were closed —> Eyam’s child deaths were recovered within 10 years Impact of Impact on London population -​ 1625 —> London’s population increased to over 200000 growth people -​ 1660 —> 400000 people lived in London -​ 1665 —> London has a population of half a million and it was the largest city in Europe (more than 10 times bigger than Norwich and Bristol and larger than 50 towns put together) -​ 1700 —> there was 9% of the population living in London -​ London’s growth was responsible for the prosperity of the Stuart economy -​ 1600-1680- The rural economy was also boosted because of the increasing demand in grain (400% increase) to feed the population -​ London was the main network of roads and shipping which was frequently used due to the increased demand of goods Impact on other towns -​ 1700 —> there were over 30 towns which was an increase from the 8 towns in 1600 The other more populated towns were: -​ Norwich (the hub of religion and the East Anglian cloth industry with 30000 people living there) -​ Bristol (port town with 20000 people living there ) -​ Newcastle (known for its coal industry) -​ York, and Exeter (both with 12000 people) were growing towns Reasons for the growth of population in these towns: 1.​ Increase in the new Gentry Class —> class was made up of Cromwell and members of parliament who earned their money through buying land instead of inheritance (explained more in the table below) 2.​ Trade from Americas and India -​ More imported goods like sugar, tea, tobacco, and coffee from the Americas and spices from India were processed by industrial port towns such as Bristol and Liverpool 3.​ Coal industry in the North -​ 1640 —-> Scottish invasion in the northeast of England led to mass coal shortages in London -​ Newcastle became the hub of the coal extraction industry in England which resulted in its development 4.​ Migrants from Europe -​ Migrants from the Low Countries came to England to either escape religious persecution or work as weavers (contributed to the cloth industry)  5.​ New financial systems -​ Beginning of the Bank of London and insurance (originally for ships) -​ 600-750 provincial towns -​ South east and Midlands —> demand for the trade of crops and market towns -​ North —> cattle and sheepv farms so towns were less populated -​ Smaller towns on the coasts were reliant on fishing -​ Manufacturing was a growing industry —> prominent in Ipswich’s growth -​ Leather industry was booming in the town of Chester which led to a population growth to 7100 in 1664 Did towns benefit or suffer as a result of population growth? 1.​ Increase in poverty -​ The population increase resulted in a scarcity in jobs in the town and villages -​ Towns were the main location for work BUT the cloth industry relocated to the countryside because of the taxes and regulations in towns -​ More vagrants —> became a scapegoat for government policy for not searching for a job -​ ⅔ of the population lived near the poverty line -​ People ex. tailors who were working in the cloth industry in Norwich lived below the poverty line —> too many qualified people with apprenticeship experiences and too little jobs -​ Exceptions in towns like Colchester with a flourishing cloth industry -​ 2. Changes in agriculture -​ Profitable for farmers due to the population growth —> 9 million acres used to grow wheat for bread and barley for beer -​ 1650 —> small landowners had to sell their land because of inflation so the aristocrats and gentry who bought it invested more money to improve the yield -​ Enclosure of farms which resulted in bigger farms that focused on producing/raising one animal or crop became more common —> drove away owners of small farms who had to seek poor relief or became vagrants -​ 3. Higher demand in agriculture -​ 1701 —> population in the towns was around 15% -​ More demand in crops resulted in more employment in agriculture -​ 4. Improvement in transport and infrastructure -​ Supplies for new markets were needed due to the growing population —> transport needed to be improved Developments were made like: -​ Landowners and town councils invested money in making the rivers more navigable -​ The first toll roads were made after 1662 -​ More investment in wagons which improved the rural economy ​ Poverty The Growth of Poverty -​ Price inflation increased because of the pressure caused by population growth on resources —> 800% increase in prices outstripped 300% increase in wages -​ Impacted people who produced inadequate amounts of food for themselves and their families -​ Living standards declined for those who were reliant on waged work and found it difficult to find full time employment -​ Agricultural work was unreliable because it was seasonal so workers could only work for six months What was the difference between the settled poor and the vagrant poor? 1.​ The settled poor (¼ of the population) —> did not move around to beg or find work since they were established in a parish 2.​ The vagrant poor —> travelled to find work or beg for money but were considered criminals (0.5% of the population arrested) How did people try to escape poverty? 1.​ Working as servants (⅖ of the village workforce were servants) -​ The poor who could work were legally required to have masters as they were somewhat dependent on them -​ They also could not access apprenticeships because they took seven years to finish -​ Workers received free housing, clothing and food -​ Servants were treated badly and could be physically abused by their masters 2.​ Migration (⅓ of a village’s population would leave to industrial towns for work) -​ Many people moved to better-off villages and cities such as London because of the opportunity for wealth -​ The last resort was to travel to American colonies (200000 people followed Puritan founders)​ Were the existing Elizabethan poor laws adequate? -​ Increase in the poor rate from 250000 pounds annually (1650) to 700000 pounds (end of 17th century) -​ The Poor Relief Act of 1601 (Old Poor Law) provided relief for the disabled poor while those who were able to work but refused to were punished. It stated that: 1.​ Overseers became chief local officials who collected poor relief taxes 2.​ All parishes had to appoint overseers who made decisions about who received relief 3.​ People who refused to pay the poor tax were given provisions to persuade them 4.​ Local parishioners could send the poor to a poorhouse 5.​ Begging was accepted in the home parish but this only applied to the provision of food YES, they were adequate -​ The Act was the foundation of poor relief during Charles I’s  reign → Charles I’s ‘Thorough’ policy was supposed to make local governments more efficient in improving relief provision for the poor -​ 1631 → Charles I’s issuing of the Book of Orders to Justices of Peace about relief for the poor and treatment of vagrants in response to the failed harvests in 1629 and 1630 BUT → the Book of Orders’s principles were old and it was written out of Charles I’s paranoia of riots from the poor -​ 1649 (end of civil war) → JPs resumed with the Elizabethan Act which went smoothly -​ By 1640 → 1400 officers organised poor relief in parishes -​ 1650 → state relief increased to 188000 pounds which was higher than the 30000 pounds in 1614 -​ 1660 → Local parishes were the source of ¾ of the money that was distributed to overseers No, they were not adequate -​ People who paid the poor rates began to resent local labours and transient vagrants → wealthier parishes complained that vagrants were taking up the common land and getting poor relief from them -​ Provision of relief for the poor was filled in by the Church and the generous donations from the wealthy gentry (believed that they were obliged to help the poor) → Sir Hugh Cholmondley (rich Yorkshire landowner) provided food for the poor twice a week Did the Settlement Act of 1662 improve the prospects of the poor? -​ After the Restoration → rising pressures from complaints about vagrants from richer parishes and an economic depression after Cromwell’s death (1658) -​ 1662 → passing of the Poor Relief Act (Settlement Act) by the Cavalier Parliament -​ The Settlement Act was supposed to restrict the movement of the vagrant poor and arrested Yes, it did improve the prospects of the poor -​ Settlement certificates could prove that a person lived in a parish and was eligible to collect poor relief → A person could move to a new parish and receive relief if they lived there for 40 days (could be moved back if there were any complaints) → Served as evidence that a poor person could prove where their resident parish was AND defined the legibility of a poor person in receiving relief (people renting property worth less than 10 pounds were legible) -​ 1688 (After the Restoration) → a new modification of the Act required new entrants to a parish to be made public since local officials manipulated the Act by secretly sending people to other parishes until they were eligible for relief No, it did not improve the prospects of the poor -​ Local administrators had the ability to restrict vagrants from travelling around and receiving poor relief which reduced labour mobility and the personal and economic freedom of the poor  -​ Parish officials could easily expel newcomers since wandering from a parish was illegal -​ Vagrants could be arrested and sent to workhouses and prisons -​ Vagrants could also be shipped off to English colonies in the Americas for 7 years -​ Large estate owners were able to destroy empty houses on their land which prevented vagrants from returning to stay → Hiring labourers from other parishes reduced landowners’ payments of poor relief since they could lay off the labourers whose welfare was under the responsibility of other parishes Activity (pg 72) → Write a paragraph explaining why population growth took place and its impact on urban and rural life. The following words mortality, fertility, vagrants, migration, encouraged, dependent, and triggered, should be used ​ Rapid population growth occurred in the period 1625-88 because of increased migration from the European Low Countries since Britain offered working opportunities in flourishing industries such as cloth production. This encouraged many Dutch weavers to work in English cities like Norwich which was the hub of the cloth industry which therefore contributed to the rising population growth. In addition, Protestants in other European countries feared the risk of being religiously persecuted which triggered them to migrate to Britain which was a Protestant country, resulting in the increase of population growth. Britain also experienced a period of domestic peace since the end of the Wars of Roses in 1484 which reduced the mortality rate and increased the population. In 1680, there was an increase of the English fertility rate in London which was another factor in increasing the population’s growth. The population growth led to the urban development of transport and infrastructure as seen in the creation of the first toll roads after 1662 because of the rising demand for the transportation of supplies in new markets. In addition, the population growth also resulted in a higher demand for agriculture in rural areas because a higher yield of grain and barley was required for the large English population. Along with that, there was an impact on agriculture since many small landowners had to sell their land to aristocrats or the gentry because of price inflation. This made many aristocrats and gentry members use other agricultural methods to increase the crop yield like the enclosure of farms. However, population growth led to poverty because of the scarcity of jobs in the towns and cities which resulted in the increase in vagrants who were dependent on the relief of their parishes. Key terms: Peer - a titled individual (duke, earl, marquess, viscount, baron etc) who was entitled to a seat in the House of Lords. The majority inherited their status, although the monarch was able to grant titles Professional - a person employed in a job that requires specific qualifications often associated with a high level of learning Inns of Court - the four legal societies given the right to confer the title of barrister on law students  Suffrage - the right to vote in elections. Most modern Western democracies are based on the principle of universal adult suffrage, where all men and women can vote Content In what ways did the revolutionary events of the Additional sections century affect the structure of society? notes/comments Changes in The social structure (17th century initially restrictively Example Examination social structure hierarchical) question: How 1.​ The Nobility (highest status) → 2-5% of the accurate is it to say population (ruled Britain for 500 years) that the social → Nobility and gentry can be hard to specifically define since a gentleman could have more power and wealth so they are structure of Britain defined as peers was transformed in -​ Second most influential and wealthiest group after the the years 1625-88? monarch (20 marks) -​ 1633 → small political elite group with only 122 members -​ Possessed generational land, property, and titles Social structure DID -​ The head of noble houses were part of the House of Lords change -​ Their power was primarily based on major landholding 1.​ Changes in the (controlled 15% of land) and the increase of food prices nobility and rent rates -​ The nobility -​ Some noble families’ fortunes were reduced (200 experienced a pounds annual income) BUT there were others who still decline in their lived comfortably with large reserves of wealth power during -​ 1642 → Marquis of Newcastle and Earl of Worcester donated 900000 pounds to royalists 1625-88 -​ Earned around 700000 to 900000 more than labourers because their (10 pounds annual earnings) wealth and -​ 1688 → nobility and upper gentry extended to trade, land was finance, rent, manufacturing, and the establishments confiscated by of town houses and country seats the Reasons for the decline in political power Republicans -​ New commercial and merchant classes were starting to rise in London and other towns after the civil -​ Many nobles lost money and had their property war confiscated by Cromwell’s republic as they sided with -​ They also lost Charles I during the civil war political power -​ Abolishment of the House of Lords in 1649 until the because of the Convention Parliament (1660) brought them back abolition of the 2.​ The gentry class (rising class → 300% increase during House of this reign) Lords in 1649 -​ Oliver Cromwell (believed that religion was accessible -​ The gentry to everyone based on their actions and was an posed a threat exception since he became Lord Protector), John Pym, to the nobility’s John Hampden, and George Monck were part of this wealth → the category (leading MPs) gentry had -​ The gentry had more influence in politics and could be promoted for serving the Crown → Thomas Wentworth 50% of became the Earl of Strafford Britain’s -​ 15000 members made up the gentry (3000 higher wealth while  gentry and 12000 lesser gentry) the nobility -​ Majority were landowners but groups like lawyers, only had 15% merchants, doctors, clergy, musicians, and architects 2.​ Changes in the were wealthy because of non-landed income gentry -​ Divided in loyalties during the Civil War → class was unrelated to their choice in loyalty for the king or -​ The gentry grew Parliament in size by 300% -​ The term ‘gentleman’ gave the impression of superiority during the 17th over non-aristocratic members century -​ Smaller numbers across the counties → Yorkshire had -​ Many important 256 higher and 323 lesser gentry in comparison to the political figures 300000 people in the population like Cromwell, -​ 50% of the country’s wealth and property were controlled by the gentry while the 15% was controlled by Pym, and the nobility with the rest going under the Church and the Hampden were king part of this class Types of gentry -​ The gentry 1.​ Some members owned property in only one parish while became the others owned several estates and manors largest social 2.​ The richest gentry controlled a county’s politics group to attend 3.​ Lesser gentry owned smaller property (50 acres) whereas greater gentry owned larger property (over university (90% 5000 acres) of 1700 4.​ Members could become JPs, constable, or judges in students at an countries but the higher gentry could become MPs Inn of Court Reasons for the gentry’s increased participation in politics were from 1.​ Second or third sons of gentry commonly worked in gentry and law so they could join the Privy Council or become an MP noble families) 2.​ Parliament’s increasing importance up to the civil war -​ The gentry since Charles had to turn to MPs (made up of a gentry became more majority) for help in fighting the Scots educated and 3.​ Officers fighting for Parliament during the civil war were able to rose to the ranks in the republic were from the gentry improve the 4.​ More opportunities for the gentry through the abolition quality of land of the House of Lords (1649) The Gentry controversy → important historical debate (1940s and reinvest the and 50s) about the role of the gentry in instigating the profits into conflict of the English Civil War trading/industry -​ Became more powerful between 1625-88 → R.H Tawney’s argument (1941)→ the civil war was caused development because of shifts in power and wealth between the nobility of merchant and gentry since the nobility faced an economic crisis due to and inflation → The gentry had more financial knowledge and experience professional so they were able to thrive more classes → The gentry then demanded a share of the nobility’s power -​ Tawney’s and started the civil war when the nobility refused argument → Lawrence Stone → sided with Tawney and believed that the inflation made nobility declined because of their poor financial management the nobility Hugh Trevor Roper’s argument (1950s) → the gentry were in decline and formed an anti-court faction against Charles I out of lose their dissatisfaction fortunes but Christopher Hill (Marxist) → against Roper’s argument since it the growth of had inadequate statistical evidence the gentry meant that 3. The Merchants (different status from the gentry) they had the Urbanisation and the growth of merchants financial -​ 1688 → 64000 trading merchants (increase from the 30000 in 1580) knowledge to -​ 1688 → the 20 most populated cities were the same help them -​ Grew in power and influence because of the growth of through towns and cities (urbanisation) inflation -​ Goods like tobacco (believed to have medicinal 3.​ The merchants benefits), spices (Indonesia), books, coffee had changed (Americas stolen from the Spanish), textiles, sugar -​ Merchants (Caribbean), and tea were sold -​ Manchester, Sheffield, Darby, London (big city), and challenged the Newcastle started to grow because of industrialised traditional parishes uniting hierarchy -​ Merchants had connections with the gentry despite because: being looked down upon by the landed elite → Owners of large -​ Bristol and Liverpool were port towns that were heavily trading companies involved in international trade became as wealthy as -​ Many merchants were the younger sons of landowning families or married into them the nobility -​ They were able to gain as much wealth, power, and → Some merchants influence in towns as the countryside gentry bought earldoms -​ After 1650 → consumer boom in London because of → 17th century improved trade so there was a higher demand for shops merchants could and traders enter the gentry -​ Received less respect than landed elites since majority were unable to have an academic education and had → Merchants received less time for leisure knighthoods for public -​ The gentry were still included in trade because of service younger sons from landowning families. Very wealthy -​ Merchants merchants could business careers from their gained more inheritance power because -​ Wealthy merchants could buy land and enter public they were able office as aldermen (member of a city council) or become their town’s mayor to buy land and -​ There was still more space for more merchants enter office as despite many urban businessmen being present an alderman or because: mayor 1.​ Wealthy merchants would retire as soon as possible 4.​ Professionals and live on a country estate HAD changed 2.​ Merchants left towns because of disease and economic -​ There were not instability in commerce The role of London’s growth many jobs that -​ Major contributor to the merchants’ significance as a required class university -​ London was a hub of British and foreign trade qualifications -​ The merchant class became a well-established and before the respectable group by the beginning of civil war professionals -​ 1650s → merchant class grew more because of safer trading conditions transformed the Growth of overseas trade social class -​ 1625-88 → more merchant involvement in overseas -​ Doctors,  trade lawyers and -​ East India Company profitably traded cotton, silk, tea, other and spices professions -​ Charles II made the company more influential by allowing improved the the company to take over more Indian territory to protect English trading interests standard of -​ Other merchants traded sugar and tobacco in America living The Navigation Acts -​ The success of Navigation Act of 1651 → required trade between England professionals and its colonies to be carried out ONLY by English ships was more (foreign ships especially the Dutch were not allowed) beneficial to Navigation Act of 1660 → list of commodities like sugar, society in tobacco, and ginger that were ONLY allowed to be transported by English ships comparison to → Served as a way to protect English trade from competitors the nobility like the Dutch and reduced dependence on foreign imports because of their -​ Owners from large international trading companies education became as wealthy as the nobility → bought earldoms so that their family could become future aristocrats Social structure did -​ Some merchants rejected having the traditional elite status NOT change -​ 16th century gentry → able to buy aristocracy -​ 17th century gentry → merchants received knighthoods 1.​ The nobility for commercial success and public service instead of had NOT background changed -​ Charles II 4. The Professionals -​ Related to the gentry families returned and -​ Improved living standards for the gentry and merchants brought back resulted in more professionals the monarchy -​ A higher quality of life made the demand for lawyers, (Restoration) doctors, architects, academics, and bankers higher so the nobility -​ Started the insurance business with ships —> take loans regained and insure the ships -​ Created Bank of London political and -​ A new system because of taxation, high value goods, monetary and disputes between insurers and merchants power -​ 1575 → only 120 barristers in Gray’s Inn [legal] (no -​ They were still records of professional numbers) rich because of -​ 1619 → there were over 200 barristers (court lawyers) generational in Gray’s Inn (largest of the 4 Inns of Court) wealth and -​ Academics increased —> Oxford and Cambridge were originally finishing schools for religion and the nobility earned around -​ Clergy members were the most notable profession 700000 to (received a university education) → doctors and lawyers 900000 which became more well known was still higher -​ 1600-1640 → 90% of 1700 students in the Inner than the Temple (an Inn of Court) were from the nobility or labourers gentry families while others were from professionals -​ The nobility was and merchants → Members of lower classes did not receive much opportunity still the second for an education since yeoman farmers and girls were not highest on the allowed to enter grammar schools 17th century  social hierarchy below the monarch 2.​ The gentry had NOT changed -​ Only 2% of the population were from the gentry and nobility so overall growth was not large BUT there were changes in the upper classes -​ The lower gentry would have found it difficult to gain political influence since they were looked down upon by the nobility 3.​ The merchants had NOT changed -​ Merchants were still looked down upon by the landed elites -​ Some merchants did not want to be a part of the traditional elite status -​ Newly successful merchants did not value family lineage and land 3. The professionals had NOT changed -​ Growth of professional linked to the Gentry and Merchant Class’ improvement in quality of life -​ Women still not able to get an education - professionals limited to men meaning social structure remain the same in keeping women below men -​ Lower classes such as yeomanry also prohibited from getting an education - professionals limited to the rich -​ Whilst the professionals are important the success of them is because of the work of the gentry class therefore the gentry could be seen as  more important Women in the Women’s status during the 17th century Example examination 17th century -​ Women had little rights and were perceived as being question (2019) : How controlled by their fathers and husbands in patriarchal accurate is it to say 17th century Britain that religious and -​ Unmarried women were accused by their neighbours of legal changes, in being guilty of witchcraft in disputes or rivalries the years 1625-88 -​ Women were in charge of the household and raising their children did little to alter the -​ Access to education was limited for them as they were status of women? only required to read and write to teach their children and manage household records Legal and religious Wealth and status was a significant factor in their role: reforms that did -​ Women of a higher status had a better position LITTLE -​ A wife of a gentry member/landowner would order her 1.​ The Marriage staff and servants around or manage estates Act of 1653 -​ A farmer’s wife would do manual labour -​ Based on -​ Women were NOT allowed to hold formal offices → Puritan ideas could not practice politics openly despite examples like (‘Barebones Elizabeth I and Bess of Hardwick Parliament’) The 17th century perspective of women -​ Set minimum -​ Women were seen as irrational and dangerous to a marriageable functioning society ages (14 for -​ Negative biblical portrayals of women such as Eve women and 16 were used to justify the common prejudice that women for men) were weak and succumbed easily to temptation -​ Standardized -​ Religious ministers even doubted that women had marriage vows souls -​ Conducted by -​ They were also thought to be physically weaker than a civil service men and less intelligent and JP -​ The ideal role of a woman was to get married, stay at home to take care of their children, and be submissive to -​ Supposed to their husbands allow women -​ Punishments existed for women who gossiped frequently to keep their like the scold’s bridle (a metal device that humiliated the own property woman and prevented her from talking) and money -​ Women who did not fit the societal expectations could be BUT it was accused and punished for being a witch → hanging unsuccessful —> (England) and burning at the stake (Scotland) ignored by many marriages because The role of women and the civil war church marriages -​ After 1642 → the First and Second Civil War allowed gave away more more women to gain more opportunities outside of their designated role control to men in -​ Gentry women took over managing large estates while marriages —> the men went to fight position of women in → Brilliana Harley used forces to defend her family’s estate in marriages were the Herefordshire in her husband’s absence same → Lucy Hutchinson managed her husband’s estate 2.​ The Adultery (Parliamentarian Colonel John) Act of 1650 → Mary Banks (royalist) helped to defend Corfe Castle using -​ Charged both detached troops men and The impact of Puritanism on women women with -​ Richer Puritans supported widespread education and the death grassroots schooling penalty if they -​ Puritan values and morals made the family the centre had an affair of worship instead of the Church → women needed to —> put both read to teach their children religious education men and -​ Education was still limited even in Puritan groups women at an since highly educated women were believed to be equal position dangerous BUT it was still unfair -​ Before 1671 → The Quakers (religious group that —> More women promoted women’s education) found 4 out of 15 were charged with established schools that were willing to teach girls -​ 1640s and 50s → the Civil War led to more female the act because a prophets as there were 300 of them woman’s affairs were -​ Puritan women were significant in political and social seen as worse campaigns during the Civil War especially during protests (misogynistic) → August 1643 → 6000 women petitioned to Parliament for —> 24 women and peace 12 men were tried in → 1649 → John Lilburne (Leveller leader) was imprisoned and Middlesex in the his wife Elizabeth and other Leveller women like Katherine 1650s Chidley made a petition that was signed by 10000 women for —> 90% of the 225 his release people charged in → Argued that women should have equal freedom to men as Devon (1650-1660s) they were created in the image of God → Parliament’s response was misogynistic about the role of were women women and refused to release Lilburne —> Showed that -​ Radical Puritan groups like the Diggers supported women were still women to have suffrage alongside men being treated unfairly -​ The Quakers allowed women to have more freedom -​ Levellers did not advocate for votes for women Legal and religious -​ Women preached in Puritan circles despite the lack of reforms that did political power BUT this was not unique since women in MORE Protestant mainland Europe already did this 1.​ The growing Writing and Women influence of -​ More women were allowed to publish their ideas and thoughts with censorship collapsing the Quakers Katherine Chidely -​ Believed that → Married to Daniel, a Shrewsbury tailor women should → 1626 → she refused to be churched (women were not be allowed to allowed to touch the Church’s sacred items after childbirth preach and because they needed to be purified) after giving birth to her first speak in child Church → 1640 → wrote religious tracts and was associated with the -​ The Toleration Levellers Act of 1650 → Advocated for a woman’s right to preach and called herself allowed a minister Quakers to → Wrote the first English publication that promoted religious  toleration using her name as a woman have more freedom —> more than 1% of the population in 1680 were Quakes Impact of legal Belief of the Quakers changes -​ Women were allowed to preach and speak up in Church because God’s light was in every man and woman -​ 1680 → Over 1% of the population were Quakers → Given more freedom under the Toleration Act of 1650 BUT were later limited by the Quaker Act of 1662 before being given more religious toleration -​ After 1650 → the Quakers were tolerated and allowed women to speak in mixed and separate meetings -​ 1676 → George Fox (founder) argued for women’s activities to be continued separately Legal changes during the Republic (impacted by Puritan beliefs) -​ 1650 → The Aduletry Act charged men and women with death for adultery BUT it was mainly used against women since a man’s affairs were seen as less worse → 1650s → 24 women and 12 men were tried for adultery in Middlesex → 1650-1660 → Only 10% of the 225 charged were male in Devon -​ 1653 → Marriage Act passed by the ‘Barebones Parliament’ allowed civil marriages to occur and were overseen by JPs BUT the Marriage Act was ignored since men did not have much control over their wives in comparison to church marriages How accurate is it to say that the social structure of Britain was transformed in the years 1625-88? (20 marks) Extract answer (got 20/20) Key terms: Divine Right: the idea that the king was appointed by the king and therefore had prerogative rights Millenarianism - the belief that the second coming of Christ is near. Millenarians believe that this will lead to the establishment of the Kingdom of God on earth, lasting for a thousand years Political philosophy - the ideas about the way in which government and power are organised  Liberalism - a belief in the notions of individual rights, freedom, tolerance, and social reforms. By their nature liberals tend to oppose absolute monarchy. Empiricism - a belief that knowledge can only come about as a result of experience. They tend to seek out evidence and carry out experiments in order to formulate theories. Confessional state - a state which officially recognises and practices a particular religion Secular state - a state which treats all of its citizens equally regardless of religion (Church and state are separated) qaq​ Rule of law - the principle that everyone including the leaders of society must follow the law (orderly and fair) Assessment 3 —> mid February Question could be from any one of the Theme 3 KQs Content What changes came about in the fields of science, Additional sections philosophy, and political ideas? notes/comments Radical political Radical political ideas ideas, including -​ Emerged after the Civil War and Charles I’s execution the Levellers in 1649 resulted in censorship collapsing and the Diggers -​ Spread by Puritan groups and their belief in millenarism was increased -​ Collapse of the English monarchy made the belief of the coming of Christ and the rule of saints more likely -​ Fifth Monarchists → fifth great empire would come to earth and Jesus would return -​ Lodovic Muggleton and John Reeve (preaches) believed that they were selected to prepare for Jesus’s return → ‘Muggletonians’ claimed that they were Christ’s forerunners Levellers → mainly London based pressure group for politics, economy, and social reform -​ Active from 1645 → army and Parliament’s religious radicalism and attacked the kingship and its authority -​ Aimed to replace the kingship with a government that represented the people -​ Led by John Lilburne, William Walwyn, and Richard Overton who issued pamphlets for new elections, equality, and widening votes -​ 1647-1649 → An Agreement of the People had many versions released -​ Became influential after the Civil War when Leveller army members demanded change -​ Late 1647 → Putney Debates → Colonel Thomas Rainsborough was the highest-ranking Leveller and represented radical soldiers and spoke out against Cromwell and Ireton (army grandees)  → Discussion about the Agreement of the People (written constitution) → Short term pragmatic alliance -​ Rainsborough argued that the Bible did NOT mention anything about the poor being excluded from politics Levellers demanded for: -​ The House of Commons be the central body in the political system -​ Abolishment of the House of Lords -​ Universal male suffrage should be the foundation of the new system -​ New constitution -​ People are entitled to religious freedom and have equal rights before the law Were the Levellers socially revolutionary? -​ They argued for reforms in the legal system and wanted locally elected judges and officials to staff local courts -​ Advocated for the end of imprisonment for debt BUT -​ The Levellers did not speak for women being part of the voting franchise -​ Some Levellers believed that servants and recipients of poor relief be excluded from voting -​ Mixed treatment of women as some Leveller women could organise protests BUT Parliament would dismiss these protests due to MPs being unable to take a petition from a woman seriously Were the Levellers successful? -​ March 1649 → Lilburne and other leading Levellers were arrested before the regicide -​ 1649 → Levellers continued propaganda and published the pamphlet The Hunting of the Foxes which attacked Cromwell -​ May 1649 → Leveller leaders were arrested for the Third Agreement which aimed to start an army mutiny BUT was quickly foiled by Cromwell and the Rump Parliament (short-lived movement) The Levellers were successful in being: -​ Significant in influencing later democratic movements -​ Encouraging of conservatism emerging from the grandees and the Rump (1649-1653) The Levellers were NOT successful: -​ They were unable to gain enough support from the army since the Rump had money to pay them → less unrest and limited Leveller influence and threat -​ Cromwell and Rump leaders were not socially radical and did not support the group since they threatened their status as privileged members of the gentry -​ Individual leaders disagreed with each other since different pamphleteers would have rival proposals in their publications → no consistent message -​ They lacked national support because they did not win the interest of the rural poor majority (not inclusive of the poor) → limited social and economic reforms and  those without property were excluded The Ranters -​ 1650 → small group of preachers in London -​ Believed that those who were predestined to be saved by God could not commit sin and could ignore social morality codes -​ Argued that immoral sexual promiscuity (drunken orgies), swearing, drinking, and crime were permitted -​ Blasphemy Act of 1650 → banned Ranters -​ 1651 → Ranter leaders were arrested *Controversy surrounding whether the act was effective since sources were written by conservatives who would benefit from a Protestant population who were fearful of religiously straying off -​ Rump used fear of Ranters to pass Acts that limited religious toleration The Diggers -​ 1647-1649 → formed as a response to the political disorder as Parliament failed to form a successful peace settlement with Charles I -​ After Charles I’s execution (1649) → grew in significance -​ Gerard Winstanley led the group and they established a community to solve social inequalities -​ Believed in total social and political equality (True Levellers) -​ Set up rural communes for the poor on common land since they believed that the ownership of land was based on invalid man-made laws after Charles I’s death -​ April 1649 → Dug vegetables on common land in Weybridge and Surrey -​ Refused to remove their hats in an interview with Thomas Fairfax (New Model Army’s leader) → sign of disrespect in the 17th century -​ After 4 months → lost a court case by local landowners -​ 1650 → Digger communities in Northamptonshire and Buckinghamshire emerged but were later removed Failures of the Diggers -​ Mainly due to the opposition from landowner communities around the Digger community in St George’s Hill -​ Digger communities in Kent, Northamptonshire, Buckinghamshire, Hertfordshire, Middlesex, Bedfordshire, Leicestershire, Gloucestershire, and Nottinghamshire did not survive Significance of the Diggers’ ideas -​ Their societal ideas were very modern (more revolutionary than the Levellers so they received less support) because they believed in: 1.​ Common ownership as a production method 2.​ Compulsory education for both boys and girls 3.​ Abolition of the monarchy and House of Lords -​ Diggers promoted direct action rather than solely relying  on ideas -​ Establishment of communes inspired communism in action -​ They suggested the ideas for liberation theology in radical Christian movements ex. 1950s and 60s movements in Latin America to free people from poverty and inequality -​ The Diggers also promoted the environmental movement by living off nature in communes BUT their ideas were too revolutionary in 17th century Britain as farmers and landowners were NOT in favour Seekers and Quakers -​ Seekers → loosely organised dissenting groups as they believed that churches and traditional clergy were not required → God was found in every individual (dangerous belief) -​ Congregationalists → believed that every individual church should be autonomous and Particular Baptists → demanded religions toleration were Calvinist -​ General Baptists → challenged predestination and encouraged natural rights and political equality claims -​ New seeker sects → deny religious or moral authority outside of the individual conscience and God’s voice within -​ 1650-1653 → George Fox (founder of the Quakers) took this claim in the North of England → belief that religion came from God’s voice within -​ Fox’s personality, missionary work, and the Quaker’s lack of need for an external organisation/support appealed to remote local districts (where Church provisions were inadequate) -​ 1654 → Fox launched a ‘mission to the South’ by 60 ‘First Publishers of the Truth’ -​ Laws to discourage vagrants could arrest and imprison wandering preachers BUT the Quakers were successful → 1660s → 35000 Quakers in England Philosophy: the The End of the Divine Right and a Confessional state (state significance of that practices a specific religion and encourages its people to do Hobbs and the same) Locke -​ 1688 → England was not a confessional state unlike in 1625 -​ A single national religion that was supported by the government was difficult to oppose despite the uniformity of practice NOT being enforced -​ Non-conformists accepted the state’s right to punish them, paid fines, accepted ejection, and left Britain -​ 1640 → organised opposition to the confessional state to bring the collapse of religious authority -​ During and after the civil war → many debated alternatives to Charles I’s Church of England -​ Radical groups wanted an end to the Divine Right  -​ 1660 → confessional state was restored BUT religious toleration and freedom was increased -​ Glorious Revolution in 1688 undermined the divine right and the confessional state → William III and Mary II agreed to rule with Parliament’s laws -​ 1688 → a confessional state was no more -​ Argument between Tories and Whigs about the role of a monarch in Church and government -​ 1688 → Richard Claridge (Peopleton’s rector in Worcestershire) and other clergymen’s opinions changed → announced that God had no role in civil government (only informed by the people) -​ David Whitby (Armenian priest) wrote that no one could rule Britain by the divine right since it was not God’s intention -​ Toleration Act of 1689 → freed dissenters from penal laws if they took an oath of allegiance -​ England remained as a formal Protestant country and the monarch was head of the state and Protestant church Timeline of Hobbes and Locke 1588 → Hobbes born 1632 → Locke born 1651 → Publication of Hobbes Leviathan 1679 → Hobbes dies 1688 → Locke returns to England during the Glorious Revolution 1689 → Locke’s Two Treatises on Government published 1690 → Locke’s essay Concerning Human Understanding published 1704 → Locke dies Thomas Hobbes -​ Born in 1588 to a vicar -​ Studied at Oxford University -​ Tutor for the landed elites’ sons and travelled around Europe which inspired his interest in philosophy -​ 1642 (outbreak of civil war) → Hobbes fled to Paris out of fear that he would be targeted for sympathising with Royalists -​ Tutored young Charles II in Paris → formed ideas for his publication Leviathan -​ 1651 → Hobbes published Leviathan About Leviathan (biblical sea monster that could only be controlled by God → a metaphor for a powerful sovereign authority that ruled over its subjects ) -​ Underpinning principles were linked to liberalism BUT also inspired supporters of absolute monarchy -​ Principle that people are guided by a hunger of power OR out of the fear of a power struggle’s consequences impact on them  -​ Questioned the Divine Right of Kings since the right to rule was not bestowed by God BUT a social contract (unwritten/written) -​ People feared each other and are more inclined to agree with a social contract -​ Power was granted by the people NOT by God → the monarch could be overthrown if the contract was broken → They will bestow all power to a single man or political body (the Leviathan) and give up liberties for protection → The Leviathan would make the law and decide those who would be imprisoned since people will naturally concede due to the potential outbreak of anarchy -​ Final section justified England’s submission to a republican regime → Hobbes’s argument was that the country had to obey the new state since Charles I was unable to protect them HOWEVER -​ Hobbes also proposed absolute sovereignty and the legitimisation of a state IF it could protect the people under its power → justification of his support for the Stuart monarchy John Locke -​ Born in 1632 -​ Puritan father fought for Parliament during the Civil War -​ Locke served the Earl of Shaftesury (founder of the Whigs and Lord Chancellor) -​ 1675 → Locke went to Holland after Shaftesbury’s career was declining -​ 1688 → Locke returned back to England and accompanies the new queen Mary -​ Vocally promoted liberalism -​ Ideas influenced Whigs in Westminster, Rousseau, Voltaire, and the French and American Revolutions -​ Against an absolute monarchy and supported individual rights and liberties → contradicted Hobbes’s argument for a strong state -​ Two Treatises on Government (1689) and Essay concerning Human Understanding (1690) -​ Treatises justified the Glorious Revolution and showed the fear of Charles II and James II’s rising power → Response to Filmer’s Patriarcha (1680) which supported the Divine Right -​ Anti-absolutist → rejected the Tory perspective that a fully functioning society needed absolutism Locke’s beliefs were: 1.​ Equality of men → all men were born free and equal in the eyes of God so the Divine Right was non-existent 2.​ Contractual theory of government → the social contract meant that government interference towards human rights were NOT allowed and would be destroyed if it did not protect basic rights, liberty, and property (similar but slightly different to Hobbes) 3.​ A confessional state should NOT be brought back  4.​ Popular sovereignty → people had power 5.​ Law of nature → the monarch could NOT be absolutist because there were inherent rights and values 6.​ Right of resistance → people could oppose a tyrant monarch The scientific After 1550 → modern scientific beliefs and methods emerged revolution Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) → began the revolution when he questioned the astronomical belief that the earth was at the centre of the universe Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) → inspired Newton’s theory of gravity with his laws of planetary motion Galileo (1564-1642) → discovered Jupiter’s four moons and acknowledged the role of the tides and its connection to the earth’s rotation Francis Bacon -​ Contributed to the scientific method of experimentation and using rationale (unusual in the 17th century) -​ Scientific ideas were usually from the Church’s beliefs → scientific discoveries were restricted -​ Known as the ‘father of empiricism’ Elements in Bacon’s methods 1.​ Scientific discovery requires the accumulation of data about the subject 2.​ Rejecting preconceived theories and conclusions about the subject 3.​ Methodical and meticulous observation of facts was significant in the understanding of natural phenomenon -​ After Bacon’s death in 1626 –. Scientists used the Baconian method and philosophers like Locke developed his ideas -​ Bacon’s work was looked at after ideas and social attitudes were changed due to the Civil War -​ He was also influential on scientists like Thomas Browne and the Royal Society as well as perspectives on religion -​ Lord Falkland → opened his estate at Great Tew, Oxfordshire to thinkers who questioned the Church of England’s issues - → Religious toleration was seen as a benefit to the Church since the Bible had many contradictions which would lead to different interpretations so everyone had the right to worship freely (rational perception of the Bible) Issac Newton -​ Had theories about calculus, classical mechanics, gravity, and the laws of motion -​ 1672 → sent letters to the Royal Society about the spectrum of light and his invention of the reflective telescope -​ 1687 → Newton managed to present Galileo’s banned suggestion about the physics on earth to the movement of heavenly bodies AND the discovery of  gravity in Philosophia Naturalis Principia Mathematica -​ 1703 → Newton became the twelfth Royal Society president The Royal Society -​ 1645 → group of natural philosophers formed an ‘invisible college’ with a shared interest in experimental investigation -​ November 1660 → Society was formally proposed by architect Christopher Wren in a lecture and later founded -​ 1662 → Charles II’s scientific interest led to the Society receiving a royal charter -​ The Society met once a week and membership was subjected from the elite and professional classes -​ Members like John Locke, Samuel Pepys, John Dryden, and the Earl of Sandwich were in the Society -​ After 1684 → the Society was dedicated to scientific pursuits solely -​ Oxford and Cambridge were not as successful in attracting the best scholars → religious nonconformists were excluded AND many attended for the status of the degree -​ Argument by historians → some claim that the Royal Society was not as significant since it was a channel of ideas for scientists BUT it did not assist them -​ 1661 → Marcello Malphigi wrote to the Society about his observation of capillary action in frogs’ lungs which filled in the gap in Harvey’s blood circulation theory -​ 1665 → the discovery of scientists were published in the Philosophical Transactions (first scientific professional journal in the world) which was owned by Henry Oldenburg (the Society’s first secretary) -​ 1666 —> French Royal Academy of Sciences was established -​ 1700 → Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin -​ The Royal Society received funding from wealthy supporters and rich European amateur scientists → Carried out public demonstrations and anatomy lessons like dissections to attract members and funding of the society -​ By 1688 → science was normalised to the public with the support of Charles II Notes from Video 1 Scientific Revolution Scientific Discoveries -​ 16th, 17th, and 18th century Europe marked the idea of reason and scientific observation -​ Churches would gain their ideas from Rome and Greece (philosophers like Aristotle) New theories and discoveries: 1.​ Nicholas Copernicus -​ Heliocentric theory —> sun was the centre of the solar system instead of  the earth and other planets revolved around it -​ Different from the geocentric theory —> Earth was the centre of the solar system -​ Figured it using scientific observation and reason 2.​ Johannes Kepler -​ Planetary motion —> the planets moved in ellipses (oval pattern) and NOT perfect circles 3. Galileo -​ First person to invent the telescope to look up at the planets into outer space 4. Issac Newton -​ Law of gravity —> pull that two bodies had towards each other was universal -​ The pull of gravity is influenced by the distance between the lefts or the overall mass -​ Common belief that the Earth was in one sphere and had certain rules (just like with the sun, moon, and other planets) —> a ball will not drop if it is dropped on Earth 5. William Harvey -​ Ideas came from the medical field —> people had a heart that circulates blood and oxygen through the system -​ Revolutionary for doctors The Scientific Method (systematic observation) —> viewed from a different perspective instead of purely basing it off of faith 1.​ Hypothesis 2.​ Problem 3.​ Observations are made —> data are gathered to draw conclusions Notes from Video 2 -​ Christopher Wren used principles of equations to design the flat roof of The Royal Society the Sheldonian Theatre → depicted the triumphs of the arts and sciences -​ End of Cromwell’s rule → Wren and others from the Oxford Philosophical Society went back to London -​ Wren became Professor of Astronomy -​ Restoration of the monarchy → could form a society inspired by Francis Bacon’s scientific principles with the king’s approval -​ The society was a good group for scientific minds and allowed people to report their scientific findings and listen to other discoveries -​ Begun in 1665 → Henry Oldenburg (society’s secretary) published Philosophical Transactions (oldest scientific journal) which allowed scientific research to be mass produced → Written in plain English rather than scientific jargon but mathematical treatises were written in Latin -​ Topics like the nature and behaviour of light were published in the journal which showed that the society was significant to philosophy -​ 1672 → the journal featured first correspondence by Issac Newton about his investigations about light and colour -​ Determining the ship’s position at sea (16th century pilot books were faulty) was a problem → needed an accurate device to tell the time -​ 1675 → Frenchman approached Charles II with the technique of finding the ship’s position using the moon → referred to the Royal Society and was proven wrong by first astronomer royale John Flamsteed -​ Establishment of the Greenwich Meridian (separation of East from West) -​ 1884 → agreement about the Prime Meridian of the world on maps -​ 1675 → Wren designed the Royal Greenwich Observatory -​ 1697 → Issac Newton published the theoretical motion of planets and gravitational force in the Principia Mathematica