Theme 1 Unit 1 Introduction to Research PDF

EARH 3724 THEME 1: UNIT 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH  THE DIFFERENT NON-SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE 1. METHOD OF AUTHORITY Rely on wisdom + knowledge of prominent people who are recognized as having a better grasp of their...

EARH 3724 THEME 1: UNIT 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH  THE DIFFERENT NON-SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE 1. METHOD OF AUTHORITY Rely on wisdom + knowledge of prominent people who are recognized as having a better grasp of their environment than ordinary people. The knowledge imparted by them is accepted as absolute e.g. parents, head of department, elderly people. 2. MYSTICAL METHOD Knowledge producers are regarded as authorities due to their ability to transmit the truth or knowledge imparted to them by supernatural forces e.g. “traditional healers” and prophets. THE DIFFERENT NON-SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE 3. RATIONALISTIC METHOD Based on human reason: Human beings have ability to think logically or reason and thus discover laws through intellectual processes. Basis of knowledge: correct reasoning E.g. Mathematics: laws and principles are discovered on the basis of axioms, without relying on observation of reality or the five human senses. 4. OPINION OF PEERS Friends + colleagues 5. TRADITION Beliefs which is carried over from one generation to the next THE DIFFERENT NON-SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE 6. EMPIRICAL METHOD Opposite of rationalistic, objectivity of observation is emphasized. Facts observed in nature are the foundation of knowledge. 7. Intuitive method: make judgments about the world based on what feels right. NB: Non-scientific methods also include debating and accidental observation  SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE Science is based on the following assumptions 1. THE EXISTENCE OF NATURAL AND SOCIAL LAWS Science presumes order + regularity in natural and social events Without this some of the main aims of scientific research (explanation, prediction) would not be attainable These laws exist independently of the observer 2. LAWS CAN BE DISCOVERED BY HUMAN BEINGS Although human beings are part of nature and are themselves subject to its laws, they can discover those laws (laws in psychology: intelligence). (infant example in text book page 5)  SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE 3. NATURAL PHENOMENA HAVE NATURAL CAUSES No supernatural powers are necessary to grasp the cause of events and to explain the way nature functions (use of religious beliefs to explain physical phenomena e.g. hurricane caused by God’s wrath on a sinful city). 4. KNOWLEDGE AND TRUTH ARE FOUNDED ON EVIDENCE There exist specific and commonly accepted rules that should be adhered to for something to constitute evidence. All scientific claims should be based on evidence/proof. 5. SCIENTIFIC OBSERVATION IS SYSTEMATIC All possibilities are considered one at a time, in a logical order  SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE 6. SCIENTIFIC STATEMENTS MUST BE DISTINGUISHED FROM COMMON-SENSE STATEMENTS Common sense is often characterized by contradictory statements and are the result of non-scientific observations Do not take into consideration the different variables at stake, lack of systematic investigation. 7. SCIENTIFIC OBSERVATION IS OBJECTIVE The description of reality does not reflect the subjective views of the researcher, but corresponds to the description made by anyone examining the same reality thus Results of the observation is independent of a single observer.  MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 1. EMPIRICAL Each step is based on observation 2. SYSTEMATIC Certain logical order must be followed to describe, explain and predict phenomena 3. REPLICABLE AND TRANSMITTABLE Since observation are objective + explanations are logical anyone placed in the same circumstances can observe same event, make same reasoning and provide same explanation + prediction. Communicate research: present research + results in a report or article published in a journal 4. REDUCTIVE: Complexity of reality reduced: grasp main relationship omit unnecessary details  DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NATURAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES Natural sciences: investigations into properties and laws of natural phenomena and its development is at times determined by the needs of production, commerce + industry. Social sciences: investigations into the properties + laws of social phenomena, development has its roots in the need for general management and control of social affairs. There are several uncontrolled factors in social sciences due to the complexity of social reality thus most results are expressed as probability statements yet natural sciences can predict with certainty Class Activity  DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NATURAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCES Two approaches (about the adequacy of scientific methods in studying social phenomena) (1) Social disciplines can be correctly understood as “natural sciences” of individuals in society. Difference between natural and social sciences demand an adjustment of the natural sciences methods to social reality. (2) Rigid scientific methods is often incapable of grasping the fluidity of many social phenomena  DEFINING RESEARCH Kerlinger (1986) defines SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about presumed relations among such phenomena: Systematic and controlled: scientific investigation is ordered in a way that investigators can have critical confidence in research outcomes. Empirical: if the scientist believes something to be true, he must put his belief to a test outside himself. Subjective belief must be compared to objective reality. Critical: other scientists could validate findings. Welman and Kruger (2001) also defined research as the process in which scientific methods are used to expand knowledge in a particular field of study.  CLASSFYING RESEARCH? There are several ways of classifying research studies: 1. FOCUS ON THE REASONS FOR CONDUCTING RESEARCH 2. FOCUS ON THE RESEARCH GOALS/OBJECTIVES OR AIMS 3. FOCUS ON THE METHODOLOGY USED (a)QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: Relies on measurement to compare and analyze different variables (b) QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: Uses qualifying words or descriptions to record aspects of the world (Pg 17 Textbook)  FOCUS ON THE REASONS FOR CONDUCTING THE RESEARCH Research used to solve a current problem which demands a timely solution is called applied research. Example: the turnover of a specific organisation may be very high and the manager want to find the reasons for this, to take corrective action. Basic research/ pure or fundamental research: has no obvious practical implications beyond contributing to a particular area of intellectual inquiry. Example: honours students interested in investigating the factors that contribute to high levels of work stress.  FOCUS ON THE RESEARCH GOALS / OBJECTIVES Exploratory research GOAL: The exploration of a relatively unknown research area. OBJECTIVES: To gain new insight into the field of the phenomenon and to determine priority for future research To prepare more structured studies of Ig Noble Prize phenomenon. Giving Explanatory research To develop new hypotheses about existing GOAL: To explain a given phenomenon (such as an phenomena. increase in organisational turnover) in terms of specific causes (such as high levels of work stress).  FOCUS ON THE RESEARCH GOALS / OBJECTIVES Descriptive research GOAL: To describe existing phenomena as accurately as possible. The emphasis is on the in-depth description of an individual, situation, group, organization,interaction or social object. Correlational research GOAL: The main goal of correlational studies is to detect the existence of a relationship between variables Developmental research GOAL: To develop new projects, policies or programmes.  DISTINGUISH BETWEEN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH BY REFERRING TO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: Relies on measurement to compare and analyze different variables (Data-gathering method: questionnaires) QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: Uses qualifying words or descriptions to record aspects of the world (Example of data-gathering method: interviews) Detailed comparison on table 2.1 on page 17 of text book. Complete the following work Activity 1 on study guide (Self-Guided)-submit & interact with others on Discussion Board Activity 2 on study guide (Self-Guided) -submit & interact with others on Discussion Board Submit any questions on this unit on Discussion Board PREPARATION FOR NEXT CLASS Tuesday next week Read Theme 2, Unit 1 and all its resources Attend tutorial slot this week-Download tutorial 1 on Blackboard