The Self From Various Perspectives - Philosophy Lecture PDF

The Self From Various Perspective PHILOSOPHY  Outline 1. The Goal of Philosophy – Knowledge or Wisdom? 2. Definition of Philosophy 3. Branches of Philosophy—Classification and its definitions 4. The Different Thinking Periods of Philosophy 5. An Approach to Dynamic Phi...

The Self From Various Perspective PHILOSOPHY  Outline 1. The Goal of Philosophy – Knowledge or Wisdom? 2. Definition of Philosophy 3. Branches of Philosophy—Classification and its definitions 4. The Different Thinking Periods of Philosophy 5. An Approach to Dynamic Philosophical Inquiry  Goal of Philosophy The goal of philosophy is to address the “big questions” which do not fall into other disciplines: How we should act (ethics) What exists (metaphysics) How we know what we know (epistemology), and How we should reason (logic). Q: Are knowledge and wisdom the same? What is the difference between knowledge and wisdom?  What is knowledge? –Knowledge is the general awareness or possession of information, facts, ideas, truths, or principles.  What is wisdom? –Wisdom is the accumulated knowledge of life or a sphere of activity that has been gained through experience. KNOWLEDGE WISDOM General awareness or Accumulated knowledge possession of of life or a sphere of information, facts, ideas, activity that has been truths, or gained through principles experience.  The Goal of Philosophy continued… Historically, philosophy has been a catch-all for academic subjects which don’t fit into the traditional disciplines of science and the humanities1 Many academic disciplines have a corresponding philosophy behind them: philosophy of science, for instance, or philosophy of history.  2.) Definition of Philosophy Etymologies: – Two Greeks words “Philo” and “Sofia” (sophia) – Meaning: “to love”, & “wisdom”; hence, “love of wisdom” – Pythagoras invented the word Philosophy (love of wisdom); for him philosophers are fittingly called lovers of wisdom  Classical Definition: The science that by natural light of reason studies the first causes or highest principles of all things.  Under this definition, four things are to be considered: Science It is called science because the investigation is systematic1 Natural Light of Reason Philosophy investigates things, not by using any other laboratory instrument or investigative tools, neither on the basis of supernatural revelation, otherwise it becomes theology2  Under this definition, four things are to be considered: Study of All Things – This sets the distinction between philosophy from other sciences. All other sciences concern themselves with a particular object of investigation1. – In short, a philosopher does not limit himself to a particular object of inquiry. He questions almost anything, if not everything.  Contemporary: The critical and rational inquiry into basic principles The branch of knowledge or academic study devoted to the systematic examination of basic concepts such as truth, existence, reality, causality, and freedom.  3.) Classification of Philosophy Division Categories Fields Subject Matter Pure Theoretical Epistemology Knowledge Cosmology Physical world Metaphysics Reality, being, existence Ontology Particular existing things Psychology Mind, consciousness Theodicy God, divine doctrines Practical Aesthetics Art, beauty, Axiology Values Ethics Behavior, good life Division Categories Fields Subject Matter Logic Thinking, reasoning Semantics Linguistic meanings Applied Philosophy of Education Education Philosophy of History History Philosophy Literature Literature Philosophy of Politics Politics Philosophy of Religion Religion  Branches of Philosophy insofar as they are theoretical 1. Metaphysics – the investigation of ultimate reality 2. Ontology -- the study of existence 3. Cosmology – the study of the universe as a rational and orderly system 4. Psychology -- the study of human mind and mental states, and of human and animal behavior 5. Epistemology – the study of origins, validity and limits of knowledge 6. Theodicy—the study of the nature, being, goodness and justice of God; the relationship between God and man; and the doctrines related to divinity.  Branches of Philosophy insofar as they are practical 1. Semantics—study of the meaning in language 2. Ethics – the study of moral standards and how they affect conduct 3. Aesthetics—the study of beauty and the values of works of art. 4. Axiology –the study of the origin, nature, types and governing criteria of values and value judgment 5. Logic—systematic study of the relation of ideas, and things or events.  4.) The Four Thinking Periods in Philosophy Historical Periods Themes Specific Concerns Known Figures Ancient Classical Cosmo-centric Change and Plato, Aristotle Permanence Medieval Theo-centric Faith and Reason St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas Modernity Anthropocentric Reason and Senses Descartes, Hume Post-modernity Absence of a Plurality and Foucault, center Particularity Habermas  Ancient Classical Philosophers Socrates (c. 469 B.C.E.-c. 399 B.C.E.) 70 years old Plato (c. 428 BCE–c. 348 BCE) Aristotle (c. 384 B.C.E.-c. 322 B.C.E.) 80 years old 62 years old  Medieval Philosophers St. Augustine of Hippo (Nov. 13, 354-Aug. 28, 430) 76 years old St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) 49 years old  Modern Philosophers Rene Descartes (Mar 31, 1596-Feb 11, 1650) 54 years old David Hume (1711-1776) 65 years old  Post-modern Philosophers Michel Foucault (Oct. 15, 1926-Jun 25, 1984) Jurgen Habermas (June 18, 1929--?) 58 years old 88 years old & still going THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY: THE FOUR THINKING PHILOSOPHICAL PERIODS  Ancient-Classical Period The ancient-classical period was roughly around 6th BCE (Before Common Era) to 4 ACE (After Common Era). In our study of philosophy, these are the two interrelated themes that somehow shaped the thinking milieu/context of the ancientclassical time: Change and Permanence. Prior to the time of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, the main concern of the thinkers was to settle the origin of the universe1 Since the early philosophers were no longer satisfied with myths and the gods/goddesses as explanatory principles, they resorted to reason in the hope that a rational explanation can be provided to the question of the origin of the world  This rational explanation began with an observation of the world: there is a seeming interplay with change and permanence1 With these sets of experience with nature, the question on change and permanence naturally came to mind2 Since that was the intellectual context, the three philosophers inherited the interest towards change and permanence They too assessed the meanings of change and permanence and conditions that made it possible for change and permanence to exist. Given that change and permanence were observed from nature, the ancient-classical period in philosophy is aptly referred to as cosmo-centric3  Socrates Known for his method of inquiry in testing data called “Socratic method”1 Socrates was described to have gone about in Athens questioning everyday views and popular Athenian beliefs2 Some of Socrates’ ideas were: 1. The soul immortal 2. The care of the soul is the task of philosophy 3. Virtue is necessary to attain happiness  Socrates believed that philosophy had a very important role to play in the lives of the people. “the unexamined life is not worth living” According to him, self knowledge would open your eyes to your true nature1 Socrates believed that you as a person should consciously contemplate, turn your gaze inward, and analyze the true nature and values that are guiding your life. According to Socrates, the state of your being (Soul/self) determines that quality of your life  Socrates said existence is of 2 kinds: 1. Visible – changes 2. Invisible – remains constant In the Socratic dialogue, Plato wrote what Socrates said about the body and the soul: “when the soul & body are together nature assigns our body to be slave and to be ruled and the soul to be a ruler and master” However, Socrates said that the body was a reluctant slave, and the soul gets dragged toward what is always changing. This would leave the soul confused Socrates also believed that the goal of life to be happy. One does become happy if man is virtuous1. According to Socrates, even death is trivial matter for the truly virtuous because he/she has realized that the most important thing in life is the state of his/her soul and acts taken from taking care of the soul through self-knowledge  Plato Plato’s philosophical method was what he identified as “collection & division” In this method, the philosopher would “collect” all the generic ideas that seemed to have common characteristics and then divided them into different kinds until the subdivision if ideas became specific. He is best known for his theory of forms that asserted the physical world is not really the “real” world because the ultimate exists beyond the physical world.  Plato is perhaps the single most important influence of the Western concept of “self”. According to Plato, the “soul” is indeed the most divine aspect of the human being1 The three parts of the soul according to plato are: 1. The appetitive (Sensual) – the element that enjoys sensual experiences, such as food, drink, and sex 2. The rational (reasoning) – the element that forbids the person to enjoy the sensual experiences; the part that loves truth, hence should rule over the other parts 3. The spirited (feeling) – the element that is inclined toward reason but understands the demands of passion; the part that loves honor & victory  Allegory of the Cave Plato, in his Allegory of the Cave, proposes that the world of senses is a domain filled with so much change. In fact, he describes this world as the realm that is always in transit---always subject to change1. Where can we find permanence? Plato proposed that we should look into the world of ideas. If we start contemplating on the world of ideas, he hopes that we can gradually condition or train our minds to think of permanent things2.  Medieval Period This phase in the history of philosophy approximately stretches from 400 ACE to 1500 ACE. There are two identifiable sub-periods in the Medieval Age: – The early stage of Medieval thinking: St. Augustine – The later stage of Medieval thinking: Thomas Aquinas Generally, medieval philosophy is labeled as Theocentric1 – For instance, a philosopher cannot simply talk about human nature without connecting it to the reality of God. – The creation of the world, as another example2 These are lines of reasoning that permeated the thinking horizon of philosophers in the medieval age.  The concern for God also explains why medieval thinking explored these two interests: faith and reason1 In the early phase of medieval thought, there was a radical separation between faith and reason2 Although reason desires to know, it also expects that it cannot comprehend what lies behind the door of faith Simply put, the domain of faith is substantially different from the workings of reason3 This is generally the thinking trend in the early phase of medieval philosophy.  St. Augustine Influenced by Plato’s ideas1 Giving the Theory of Forms a Christian perspective, Augustine asserted that these Forms were concepts existing within the soul belonged He held that the soul held the TRUTH and was capable of scientific thinking His concept of the “self” was an inner, immaterial “I” that had self-knowledge and self awareness.  He believed that the human being was both a soul and body, and the body possessed senses, such as imagination, memory, reason, and mind through which the soul experienced the world He also reasoned that human beings through the senses could sense the material, temporal objects as we interacted with the material; the immaterial but intelligible1 god would only be clear or obvious to the mind if one tune into his/her immaterial self/soul The aspects of the self/ soul according to him are: 1. It is able to be aware of itself 2. It recognizes itself as a holistic one 3. It is aware of its unity He believed that the human being who is both soul and body is meant to tend to higher, divine, and heavenly matters because of his/her our capacity to ascend & comprehend truths through the mind  He connected the ascension of the soul with his assertion that everything related to the physical world belongs to the physical body, and if a person concerns himself/herself with this physical world then he/she will not be any different from animals. He pointed out that a person is similar to God as regards to the mind and its ability; that by ignoring to use his or her mind1 he/she would lose his/her possibility to reach and lasting happiness  For the later medieval period, St. Thomas Aquinas presented a unique position1 This is a notion which he expressed in his five cosmological arguments of God‘s existence (Summa Theologiae). 1. First Way – Argument from Motion 2. Second Way – Causation of Existence 3. Third Way – Contingent and Necessary Objects 4. Fourth Way – The Argument from Degrees and Perfection 5. Fifth Way – The Argument from Intelligent Design  First Way - The Argument From Motion St. Thomas Aquinas, studying the works of the Greek philosopher Aristotle, concluded from common observation that an object that is in motion (e.g. the planets, a rolling stone) is put in motion by some other object or force1 Follow the argument this way: – 1. Nothing can move itself. – 2. If every object in motion had a mover, then the first object in motion needed a mover. – 3. Movement cannot go on for infinity. – 4. This first mover is the Unmoved Mover, called God.  Aquinas is starting from an a posteriori position1 Aquinas argues that the natural condition is for things to be at rest. Something which is moving is therefore unnatural and must have been put into that state by some external supernatural power.  Second Way - Causation of Existence This Way deals with the issue of existence. Aquinas concluded that common sense observation tells us that no object creates itself1. Aquinas believed that ultimately there must have been an UNCAUSED FIRST CAUSE (GOD) who began the chain of existence for all things. Follow the argument this way: 1. There exists things that are caused (created) by other things. 2. Nothing can be the cause of itself (nothing can create itself.) 3. There cannot be an endless string of objects causing other objects to exist. 4. Therefore, there must be an uncaused first cause called God.  Third Way - Contingent and Necessary Objects Sometimes referred to as the modal cosmological argument This Way defines two types of objects in the universe: contingent beings and necessary beings. A contingent being is an object that cannot exist without a necessary being causing its existence. Aquinas believed that the existence of contingent beings would ultimately necessitate a being which must exist for all of the contingent beings to exist2 Follow the argument this way: 1. Contingent beings are caused. 2. Not every being can be contingent. 3. There must exist a being which is necessary to cause contingent beings. 4. This necessary being is God.  Fourth Way - The Argument From Degrees And Perfection St. Thomas formulated this Way from a very interesting observation about the qualities of things1. This is referred to as degrees or gradation of a quality. From this fact Aquinas concluded that for any given quality2 there must be a perfect standard by which all such qualities are measured. These perfections are contained in God.  Fifth Way - The Argument From Intelligent Design By looking into the world, we can easily notice that there is an inherent system or principle which governs the existence of things2 St. Thomas proposes in the argument from design of the universe that there must be a Divine Architect who planned the structure of the world— God. By concluding that God is the over-all architect of the universe, St. Thomas successfully depicts the strong bond between reason and faith: that an understanding of God begins with how we experience and comprehend the world through the human faculty of reason. Aquinas states that common sense tells us that the universe works in such a way, that one can conclude that is was designed by an intelligent designer, God3 In other words, all physical laws and the order of nature and life were designed and ordered by God, the intelligent designer.  Modernity This period is described as anthropocentric1 Unlike the medieval stance which promoted the role of God in relation to faith and reason, the modern position is more inclined to elevate man to the pedestal as the main concern of its reflections and ruminations. The concept of faith took a side step and paved way to reflections and investigations on the extent, limitations of the capacities of the human species2  Spanning from the 16th early 19th century, the uniqueness of this philosophical time- frame rests on its discussion on the relationship between reason and senses1 With this discourse between reason and senses, two thinking camps have been formed to address the questions that we have presented.  1st Camp: Rationalization For this thinking tradition, it is reason which should be cultivated since reason aims at the principles behind things, events and issues. If the role of reason is magnified, we gradually decipher the causes behind every phenomenon encountered in this world. Consequently, the senses should be trusted. A discussion that makes use of information derived from the senses will only end up in contradictions1  René Descartes (1596-1650) French philosopher and mathematician, a founder of the “modern age” and perhaps the most important figure in the intellectual revolution of the seventeenth century in which the traditional systems of understanding based on Aristotle were challenged and, ultimately, overthrown. His conception of philosophy was all- embracing: it encompassed mathematics and the physical sciences as well as psychology and ethics, and it was based on what he claimed to be absolutely firm and reliable metaphysical foundations… hyperbolic/ metaphysical doubt (Methodological doubt)1: ―Let the demon deceive me as much as he may, he can never bring it about that I am nothing, so long as I think I am something….I am, I exist, is certain, as often as it is put forward by me or conceived in the mind. Elsewhere, Descartes expresses this cogito argument in the famous phrase ―Cogito ergo sum (I am thinking, therefore I exist‘)2  He asserted that everything perceived by the senses could not be used as proof of existence because human senses could be fooled1 In turn, by doubting his own existence, he proved that there is a thinking entity that is doing the act of doubting He claims about the “self” are: 1. It is constant; it is not prone to change; and it is not affected by time 2. Only the immaterial soul remains the same throughout time 3. The immaterial soul is the source of our identity  He asserted that this thinking entity could exist without the body because it is an immaterial substance. Nevertheless, this immaterial substance (self) posseses a body and is so intimately bound/ joined by it that the “self” forms a union with its body1  SOUL BODY It is conscious, thinking It is a material substance that substance that is unaffected by changes through time time It is known only to itself (only It can be doubted; the public you know your own mental can correct claims about the event and other cannot correct body your mental state) It is not made up of parts. It It is made up of physical, views the entirety with no quantifiable, divisible parts hidden or separate compartments. It is both conscious and aware of itself at the same time  2nd Camp: Empiricism This position is not willing to surrender the role of the human senses in favor of the faculty of reason in knowledge production. The empiricist camp holds that knowledge of the world is impossible without the sense impressions. A very simple example can be presented to the fore: What is color red? With this simple example, empiricism claims that the information provided by the senses should not be underestimated. In point of fact, the capacity of the senses should be harnessed or developed so we can better know the world.  David Hume (1711-76) Scottish philosopher and historian who may be aptly considered the leading neo-skeptic of the early modern period. Hume suggests that “impressions” (of which there are two kinds: of sensations and of reflection) are more forceful or vivacious than ideas, but some ideas1 do sometimes take on enough force and vivacity to be called impressions, and belief also adds sufficient force and vivacity to ideas to make them practically indistinguishable from impressions. In the end we find that impressions are clearly distinguished from ideas only insofar as ideas are always causally dependent on impressions.  Hume strove to create a total naturalistic science of man that examined the psychological basis of human nature. Against philosophical rationalists, Hume held that passion rather than reason governs human behaviour. Hume argued against the existence of innate ideas, positing that all human knowledge is ultimately founded solely in experience  Conceptual Points Feelings & reason Religion Common Sense Ethics 1. Feelings & Reasons The key thing that we need to get right in life is feeling rather than rationality Whatever that we aim for reason is the slave of passion We are more motivated by our feelings than by any comparatively feeble results of our analysis and logic Few of our convictions are driven by rational investigation of the facts Reason helps a little but decisive factors are bound with our emotional lives Hume was deeply attentive to curious way but the very often reason is from rather than to our convictions We find an idea of nice and threatening and on that basis alone declare a true or false. Reason comes in later to support the original attitude Hume didn‘t believe however that all feelings are acceptable and equal that‘s why he firmly believed in the education of passion 2. Religion Is not rational to believe in God, he think there were no compelling reasons for the existing of God Humes believe that a vindictive God is a cruel superstition Central point: Religious belief is not the product of reason We should not treat people who disagree religion as a rationale being who made error in reasoning, that should be put right but rather should be left in peace. Trying to have a rational argument about religion is the height of fooling and arrogance 3. Common Sense Hume is skeptic, doubting common sense ideas of the day1. There is no core self I can never catch “myself” at anytime without the perception. Never observed anything but perception We are not really in the need to find people reason tell us and we are that we seem to be when we look at ourselves in the mirror or casually use the word “I” 4. Ethics Morality is not having moral ideas, its having trained in the early years , the art of decency through emotions Being good is doing good habits of feeling  Bundle theory – wherein he described the “self” or person (which Hume assumed to be the “mind”) as a bundle or a collection of different perceptions that are moving in a very fast and successive manner; therefore, it is in a “perpetual flux” Hume’s theory began by denying Descartes view of the immaterial soul and of its experiences Empiricists like Hume believed that human intellect & experiences are limited1 He concluded that the “self” is merely made up of successive impressions  Hume divided the mind’s perceptions into 2 groups stating that the difference between the 2 “consists in the degrees of force and liveliness with which they strike upon the mind” 1. Impressions – the perceptions that are most strong. They enter t5he senses with most force. These are directly experienced; the result from inward and outward sentiments 2. Ideas – less forcible & less lively counterparts of impressions. These are mechanisms that copy & reproduce sense data formulated based upon the previously perceived impressions  Hume asserted that the notion of “self” could not be verified through observation He argued that if you can directly know, then what you know are mere objects of what your senses are experiencing1 For Hume, the “self” was nothing but a series of incoherent impressions received by the senses2 Hume compared the “self” to a nation; whereby a nation retains its “being a nation” not by some single core or identity but by being composed of different, constantly changing elements, such as people, systems, culture, and beliefs In the same manner, the “self” according to Hume is not just one impression but a mix and loose cohesion of various personal experiences3 Hume did not believe on the existence of “self” Hume’s self is a passive observer similar to watching one’s life pass before the eyes like a play or a screen; whereby the total annihilation of the self comes at death  John Locke 1Lockebelieved that the “self” is identified with conscious and this “self” to include the memories of that thinking thing. He believed that the “self’ is identified with consciousness2 A person’s memories provide a continuity of experience that allows him/her to identify himself/herself as the same person overtime  This theory of personal identity allows Locke to justify a defense of accountability Accordingdg to him since the personis the same “self” in trhe passing of time, he or she can be heldf accountable for past behaviors. However, Locke insisted that person could only be held accountable for behaviors she/he can remember3  Immanuel Kant Views “self” is transcendental, which means the “self” is related to a spiritual or nonphysical realm The self is not the body, and it does not have the qualities of the body Despite being transcendental, Kant stressed that the body and its qualities are rooted to the “self”1  Two kinds of consciousness of self (rationality): Consciousness of oneself & one’s psychological states in inner sense, and Consciousness of oneself and one’s states by performing acts of apperception1 He point out that what truly exist are your ideas and your knowledge of your ideas2 The material world is not just an extension, and that you are merely seeing objects3 These ideas are what connect you to the external world He defended the diverse quality of state of the body & soul (self) presenting that “bodies are objects of outer sense; souls are objects of inner sense”  Two components of the self: 1. Inner self: The “self” by which you are aware of alterations in your own state. This includes your rational intellect and your psychological state, such as moods, feelings, and sensations, pleasure, and pain. 2. Outer self: includes your senses and the physical world. It is the common boundary between the external world and the inner self, It gathers information from the external world and the inner self. It gathers information from the external world through the sense, which the inner self interprets & coherently expresses  Kant proposed that the “self” organizes information in 3 ways: 1. Raw perceptual input 2. Recognizing the concept, and 3. Reproducing in the imagination Kant’s “self” has unified point of self reference. You are conscious of yourself as the subject, and you are conscious of yourself as a common subject of different representations1  Post-Modernity Literally, post-modernity means ‘after modernity‘1 Unlike other periods in the history of philosophy, the post-modern milieu does not have a singular center or concern. More to the point, it has centers since it aims at providing more value and space to the particulars instead of the universals. Convinced that the human mind cannot once and for all achieve these universal and over-arching explanatory principles, the post-modern philosophers are highly interested to look into what the specific locations/contexts can contribute in the table of discussion1  The academe in turn, is expected to mainstream those ideas that come from the farmers, fisher folks, street vendors and the everyday experiences of the people. This is the unique sensibility which the post- modern vantage point is willing to explore.  Sigmund Freud His most important contribution, particularly in psychology, was psychoanalysis, a practice devised to treat those who are mentally ill through dialogue The vast majority of European philosophers before Freud regarded human beings as having an “essence” to which the self/soul is ascribed The “self” was an entity in itself characterized as the subject1 of the physical and mental actions and experiences. The notion is that the self is essence & subject points to the idea of an entity that is unified, single, undivided, and unaffected by time  Freud, however, did not accept the existence of any single entity that could be put forward as the notion of “self”. His work in the field of psychoanalysis was groundbreaking because it answered questions about the human psyche in a way that no one else had before him1 In his earlier structural division of the psyche, Freud distinguished 3 levels of consciousness: 1. Conscious, which deals with awareness of present perceptions, feelings, thoughts, memories, and fantasies at any particular moment; 2. Pre-conscious/ subconscious, which is related to data that can readily be brought to consciousness; and 3. Unconscious, which refers to data retained but not easily available to the individual’s conscious awareness or scrutinity  Central to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory was the proposed existence of the unconscious as: 1. A repository for traumatic repressed memories; and 2. The source of anxiety-provoking drives that is socially or ethically unacceptable to the individual  Psychoanalytic Theory To explain his model, Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to describe the 3 levels of the mind Freud further structured the psyche/ mind into 3 parts: 1. ID – operates on the pleasure principle. Every wishful impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences1 2. Ego – operates according to the reality principle. It works out realistic ways of satisfying the id’s demands2. The ego considers social realities & norms, etiquette, & rules in deciding how to behave3 3. Superego- It incorporates the values and morals of society. The superego’s function is to control the id’s impulses4  The superego consists of 2 systems: 1. Conscience – if the ego gives in to the id’s demands, the superego may make the person feel bad through guilt 2. Ideal self – it is an imaginary picture of how you ought to be. It represents career aspirations; how to treat other people; and how to behave as a member of society According to Freud’s structure of the mind, the ego and the superego function in different level consciousness There is a constant movement of memories & impulses from one level to another The id, on the other hand, is unaffected by reality, logic, or the everyday world as it operates within the unconscious part of the mind  Ego defense mechanisms Defense Mechanism Definition Example Compensation Covering up a real or A physically handicapped perceived weakness by boy is unable to participate emphasizing a trait one in football, so he considers more desirable compensated by becoming a great scholar Denial Refusing to acknowledge the A woman drinks alcohol existence of a real situation every day and cannot stop, or the feelings associated failing to acknowledge that with it she has a problem Displacement The transfer of feelings from A client is angry with his one target to another that is physician, does not express considered less threatening it, but becomes verbally or that is neutral abusive with the nurse (Chapter 2 of Townsend; Videbeck , page 46; Student Guide pages 14 to 16)  Defense Mechanism Definition Example Rationalization Attempting to make excuses John tells the rehab nurse or formulate logical reasons “I’ll drink because it’s the to justify unacceptable only way I can deal with feelings or behaviors my bad marriage and my worse job.” Reaction Formation Preventing unacceptable or Jane hates nursing and undesirable thoughts or attends nursing school to behaviors from being please her parents. expressed by exaggerating During career day, she opposite thoughts or types of speaks to prospective behaviors students about the excellence of nursing as a career ((Chapter 2 of Townsend; Videbeck , page 46; Student Guide pages 14 to 16) Defense Mechanism Definition Example Regression Retreating in A 2-year-old boy is response to stress to hospitalized and he an earlier level of only drinks from a development and the bottle, even though comfort measures his mom says that he associated with that has been drinking level of functioning from a cup for 6 months Identification An attempt to A teenager who increase self-worth by required lengthy acquiring certain rehabilitation after an attributes and accident decides to characteristic of an become a physical individual one therapist as a result admires (Chapter 2 of Townsend; Videbeck of his , page 46; Student Guide pages 14 experiences to 16)  Defense Mechanism Definition Example Intellectualization An attempt to avoid S’s husband is being expressing actual emotions transferred with his job to associated with a stressful city far away from her situation by using the parents. She hides the intellectual processes of anxiety by explaining to logic, reasoning, and her parents the analysis advantages associated with the move Introjection Integrating the beliefs and Children integrate their values of another individual patents’ value system into into one’s own ego the process of conscience structure formation. A child says to a friend, “Don’t cheat. It’s wrong.” (Chapter 2 of Townsend; Videbeck , page 46; Student Guide pages 14 to 16) Defense Mechanism Definition Example Isolation Separating a thought A young woman or memory from the describes being feeling tone or attacked and raped emotion associated without showing any with it emotion Projection Attributing feelings Sue feels a strong of impulses sexual attraction to unacceptable to her track coach and one’s self to another tells a friend, “He’s person coming on to me!” Repression Involuntarily blocking An accident victim unpleasant feelings can remember and experiences nothing about the from one’s accident awareness (Chapter 2 of Townsend; Videbeck , page 46; Student Guide pages 14 to 16)  Defense Mechanism Definition Example Sublimation Rechanneling of drives or A mother whose son was impulse that are personally killed by a drunk driver or socially unacceptable into channels her anger and activities that are energy into being the constructive president of the local chapter of Mothers Against Drunk Drivers Suppression The voluntary blocking “I don’t want to think unpleasant feelings and about that now. I’ll think experiences from one’s about that tomorrow.” awareness Undoing Symbolically negating or Joe is nervous about his cancelling out an experience new job and yells at his that one finds intolerable wife. On his way home he stops and buys her flowers. (Chapter 2 of Townsend; Videbeck , page 46; Student Guide pages 14 to 16)  Psychosexual Development Oral (0-18months) – Pleasure through the mouth1 – Beahviors: dependency, eating, crying, biting – Develops body image, aggressive drives – Too much or to little satisfaction can lead to oral fixation1a Oral receptive – have stronger tendency to smoke, drink, overeat Oral aggressive – having the tendency to bite nails or use curse words or gossip Anal (18-3 y.o.) – Pleasure through anus2 – Behaviors: control of holding on or letting go – Develops concept of power, punishment, ambivalence, concern with cleanliness or being dirty – Fixation: Anal retentive – an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control Anal expulsive – where the person may become messy and disorganized  Phallic (3-6 y.o.)1 – Pleasure through genitals1a, erotic attachment of parent of opposite sex2 – Behaviors: touching of genitals – Develops fear of punishment by parents of same sex, guilt, identification3 – A fixation could result in sexual desires (overindulging & avoidance) & weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts Latency (6-12 y.o.) – Pleasure through school work, social relationships and knowledge4 – Behaviors: sense of industry and mastery – Learns to control over aggressive, destructive impulses Genitals (12-20 y.o. – Pleasure through genitals with orgasm5 – Behaviors: becomes independent, responsible for self – Develops sexual identity, ability to love and work  Gilbert Ryle He wrote The Concept of Mind (1949) where he rejected the notion that mental state are separable from physical states. He called the distinction between mind & Matter a “category mistake” because of its attempt to analyze the relation between “mind” & body as if the 2 terms of the same categories  Ryle’s points against Descartes’ theory are: 1. The relation between mind & body are not isolated processes. 2. Mental processes are intelligent acts, and not distinct from each other 3. The operation of the mind is itself an intelligent act According to Ryle, the rationalist view that mental acts are distinct from physical acts and that there is a mental world distinct from the physical world is a misconception Ryle described this distinction between mind and body as “the dogma of the ghost in the machine” where he explained there is no hidden entity or ghost called “soul” inside a machine called “body”  Ryle criticized the theory that the mind is a place where mental images are apprehended, perceived, or remembered. He asserted that sensations, thought, and feelings do not belong to a mental world separate from the physical world. Knowledge, memory, imagination, and any other abilities or dispositions do not reside “within” the mind as if the mind were a space in which these could be stored or located If Ryle believed that the concept of a distinct “self” is not real, where do we get our sense of self? Ryle asserted that it is from our behaviors and actions1  Paul Churchland His philosophy stands on a materialistic view or the belief that nothing but matter exists1 Thus, in Churchland’s view the immaterial, unchanging soul/self does not exist because it cannot be experienced by the senses Churchland insisted that the idea of a mind or soul is not in consonance with the physical changes that have occurred in the hereditary characteristics of the human species over successive generations  Specifically, his idea is called eliminative materialism or the claim that people’s common- sense understanding of the mind (or folk psychology) is false, and that certain classes of mental states which most people believe in do not exist To prove his point, Churchland pointed out that in mental conditions, such as depression, it is technically wrong to say that the person is “out of his mind”1 Moreover, he pointed out that in a severe head injury, the victim’s personality changes occur He pointed out that is the mind were a separate entity, then the victim should have retained his/her personality despite the damage to the brain2  Maurice Merleau-Ponty He emphasizes the body as the primary site of knowing the world, thus his idea of “self” is an embodied subjectivity Embodied means to give a body to (usually an immaterial substance like a soul) Subjectivity in philosopy, is the state of being a subject an entity that possesses conscious experiences, such as perspectives, feelings, beliefs, and desires Moreover, a subject acts upon or affects some other entity, which in Philosophy is called the object1  He rejected the Cartesian mind-body dualism and insisted that the mind & body are intrinsically connected By emphasizing the primacy of the body in an experience, he also veered away from the established notion that the center of consciousness is the mind He asserted that human beings are embodied subjectivities, and that the understanding of the “self” should begin from their fundamental fact1 He argued that the body is part of the mind is part of the body2 According to him, the body acts what the mind perceives as a unified one.