Branches of Philosophy

The Goal of Philosophy

• Philosophy intends to tackle large, cross-disciplinary questions.
• These questions include ethics (how to act), metaphysics (what exists), epistemology (how to know), and logic (how to reason).

Knowledge vs. Wisdom

• Knowledge means awareness/possession of information, facts, ideas, truths, or principles.
• Wisdom means accumulated knowledge of life/activity through experience.

Philosophy as a Catch-All

• Historically, philosophy included academic subjects outside science/humanities' traditional disciplines.
• Many academic disciplines have related philosophies, like philosophy of science or history.

Definition of Philosophy – Etymology

• Based on Greek words "Philo" (to love) and "Sofia" (wisdom).
• Pythagoras invented the word "Philosophy", meaning "love of wisdom".
• Philosophers are therefore considered lovers of wisdom.

Classical Definition of Philosophy

• Philosophy is the science that studies the first causes/highest principles of all things using natural reason.
• Philosophy is considered a science because its investigation is systematic.
• Philosophy investigates things using reason, not laboratory instruments, or supernatural revelation (theology).
• Philosophy distinguishes itself from other sciences by not limiting itself to a particular object of investigation.

Contemporary Definition of Philosophy

• Philosophy is the critical and rational inquiry into basic principles.
• Philosophy is the systematic examination of basic concepts such as truth, existence, reality, causality, and freedom.

Classification of Philosophy: Pure

• Theoretical area includes:
  • Epistemology: knowledge
  • Cosmology: physical world.
  • Metaphysics: reality, being, existence
  • Ontology: particular existing things
  • Psychology: mind, consciousness
  • Theodicy: God, divine doctrines.

Classification of Philosophy: Practical and Applied

• Practical area includes:
  • Aesthetics: art, beauty
  • Axiology: values
  • Ethics: behavior, good life
• Applied area includes:
  • Logic: thinking, reasoning
  • Semantics: linguistic meanings
  • Philosophy of Education: education
  • Philosophy of History: history
  • Philosophy of Literature: literature
  • Philosophy of Politics: politics
  • Philosophy of Religion: religion

Branches of Philosophy (Theoretical)

• Metaphysics investigates ultimate reality.
• Ontology studies existence
• Cosmology studies the universe as a rational system.
• Psychology studies the human mind, mental states, and behavior.
• Epistemology studies the origins, validity, and limits of knowledge.
• Theodicy studies the nature, being, goodness, and justice of God.

Branches of Philosophy (Practical)

• Semantics studies meaning in language.
• Ethics studies moral standards and their effects on conduct.
• Aesthetics studies beauty and values in art
• Axiology studies the origin, nature, types, and value judgments
• Logic is a systematic study of relations of ideas, things, or events.

Four Thinking Periods in Philosophy

• Ancient Classical period was cosmo-centric, focused on change and permanence. Key figures include Plato and Aristotle.
• Medieval period was theo-centric, focused on faith and reason. Key figures include St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas.
• Modernity period was anthropocentric, focused on reason and senses. Key figures include Descartes and Hume.
• Post-modernity had absence of a center, focusing on plurality and particularity. Key figures include Foucault and Habermas.

Ancient-Classical Period (6th BCE - 4 ACE)

• Shaped by themes of change and permanence.
• Thinkers aimed at resolving questions of the universe's origin, no longer satisfied with myths.
• Early philosophers turned to reason to provide explanations.
• Observation of change and permanence led to cosmo-centric philosophy.

Socrates

• Known for the "Socratic method" of questioning data.
• He questioned Athenian views/beliefs.
• Some ideas from Socrates:
  • The soul is immortal.
  • Care of the soul is the task of philosophy.
  • Virtue is necessary for happiness.
• Philosophy plays a very important role in peoples lives.
• "The unexamined life is not worth living."
• Self-knowledge would open your eyes to your true nature.
• Contemplate and analyze the nature and values guiding life.
• The state of your being (Soul/self) determines the quality of life.
• Socrates believed existence is of two kinds: visible (changes), invisible (constant).
• The body should be a slave and the soul to be a ruler and master.
• Socrates said the body was a reluctant slave, soul gets dragged toward what is always changing, which leaves the confusion.
• Socrates said that the goal of life to be happy, only happens if one is virtuous.
• Socrates belived even death to be a trivial because the real virtue is self care through knowledge.

Plato

• His philosophical method: "collection & division" which would involve "collecting" ideas that seem to share common characteristics and then dividing them into different kinds until the ideas became specific.
• Plato's best known for his theory of forms, asserting that ultimate reality exists beyond the physical world.
• To Plato, the soul is the most divine aspect of human beings.
• The 3 parts of the soul are: appetitive (sensual experiences), rational (loves truth), and spirited (loves honor).
• In the Allegory of the Cave, Plato suggests the world of senses is full of change.
• Plato suggest that the permanence be found looking into the world of ideas, he then hopes that we can gradually condition or train our minds to think of permanent things.

Medieval Period (400 ACE to 1500 ACE)

• Two sub-periods: St. Augustine (early) and Thomas Aquinas (late)
• Generally labeled as Theocentric.
  • Philosophers cannot simply not talk about human nature without connecting it to the reality of God.
  • There are lines of reasoning permeated through philosophers thinking around this time.
• Medieval thinking explored faith and reason.
• There was a radical separation between faith and reason in the beginning.
• Although reason desires to know, it also expects cannot comprehend which comes behind faith.
• The idea of the faith is substantially different from the workings of reason.

St. Augustine

• Influenced by Plato.
• The Forms were asserted christian views, that where were concepts existing within the soul.
• He held that the soul held the TRUTH and was capable of scientific thinking.
• Augustine defined “self” as an inner, immaterial “I” with self-knowledge/awareness.

Augustine's Beliefs About Human Beings and Self/Soul

• Both soul and body. The body possesses senses allowing the soul to experience the world.
• Humans sense material, temporal objects. An immaterial God could only be clear to the mind
• The aspects of the self/ soul are:
  • Able to be aware of itself
  • Recognizes itself as a holistic one.
  • Is aware of its unity.
• Human beings meant to tend to higher matters and comprehend truths through mind.
• The physical world belongs to the body, but the mind belongs to God, that by ignoring to use its mind, lose its possibility to be happy.

Thomas Aquinas: Unique Ideas and Five Cosmological Arguments

• There are five cosmological arguments (Summa Theologiae):
  • 1st Way - Argument from Motion
  • 2nd Way - Causation of Existence
  • 3rd Way - Contingent and Necessary Objects
  • 4th Way - The Argument from Degrees and Perfection
  • 5th Way - The Argument from Intelligent Design

Thomas Aquinas: First Way

• Thomas Aquinas concluded from common observation that an object that is in motion (e.g. the planets, a rolling stone) is put in motion by some other object or force.
  • Nothing can move itself.
  • The first object in motion needed a mover if every object did.
  • The movement cannot go on for infinity
  • So the first mover is called an Unmoved Mover, who is God.
• Aquinas started from a posteriori, from what is to something which is not (God).
• It is unnatural and a external power which allows things to be in motion

Thomas Aquinas: Second Way

• Deals with the issue of existence.
• Aquinas believed that ultimately there must have been an uncaused first cause. First cause had started the first chain of existence.
  • There exists things that are caused (created) by other things
  • Nothing can be the cause of itself (nothing can create itself.)
  • There cannot be an endless string of objects causing other objects to exist
  • Therefore, first cause called God.

Thomas Aquinas: Third Way

• Defines two types of objects in the universe; contingent beings and necessary beings
• Aquinas believes that the existence of contingent beings would need a being will need to exist for the reason it exists.
  • Contingent beings are caused.
    • Not every being can be contingent.
    • There must exist a being to cause the contingent.
    • God causes all.

Thomas Aquinas: Fourth Way

• St. Thomas formulated this Way from an interesting observation about the qualities of things.
• Aquinas concludes that we have a measurement of "goodness" of objects.
  • We then there must by some perfect "Good", and these perfections are one with God.

Thomas Aquinas: Fifth Way

• Thomas proposed that there have to be a Divine Architect for the structure of this world.
• Understanding of God begins as we experience the natural laws of the universe.
• The designed universe and all physical laws are designed by God because common tells us.

Modernity - General

• Described as anthropocentric, elevating man as the main concern.
• Took side step from faith, investigating into extent, limitations of capacities of human species.
• Unique because relationship between reason and senses.
• Two thinking camps formed to address present questions.

Modernity - First Camp; Rationalization

• Reason cultivated since aims for principles behind things, events and issues.
• The causes deciphered when role of reason magnified.
• The senses should not be trusted.
• Will only produce contradictions when using information derived from the senses.

Modernity - Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

• Founder of modern age and important figure in the seventeenth century.
• Encompassed mathematics, psychology and ethics.
• Descartes famous quote 'let the demon deceive me as much as he may, he can never bring it about that I am nothing, so long as I think I am something....I am, I exist, is certain, as often as it is put forward by me or conceived in the mind'
• Cogito ergo sum "(I am thinking, therefore I exist)."

Descartes - Soul and Body

• Asserted the senses not proof because could be fooled.
• Proved there is a thinking entity doing an act which is his own existence by doubling his existence.
  • It is constant, it can change and is not affected by time.
  • The Soul is the same thing
  • soul makes you aware there there is you.
• Asserted it could exist without the body.

Soul vs. Body - Descartes Thought Model

• Soul: Is conscious. Is not made up of parts, totality.
• Body: Is a material substance that change though time. A person Can correct.

Modernity - Second Camp; Empiricism

• This position is not willing to give senses in favor reason to describe the production of knowledge.
• Sense impressions for knowledge of the world.
• capacity of senses should not the underestimated.
• Should be better to understand the world.

David Hume - Scottish Philosopher (1711-76)

• Leads neo-skeptic from the early modern era.
• Impressions then ideas are more forceful.
• Ideas are always casual impressions depending on the end.

David Hume – General Beliefs

• Passion rather than reason the behavior of governing humans.
• Human knowledge fromsoley in experience, against innate knowledge.
• Main important ideas, Religion, common sense ethics.

David Hume –Conceptual Points

• Emotions are a sign of rationality, not rationality.
• We are all slaves the passions we aim for.
• The analysis is driven by comparatively feeble, not our logic.
• Convictions is an emotional driver lives bound too.
• The reason is form convictions.
• Reason comes to support emotions.
• Not the other way around as with Descartes.
• Not all feelings are acceptable.

Religion By Hume

• Doesn't believe the reasons for the existence of God.
• a vindictive God superstition
• The main idea is that religious belief isn't about the reason for the
• Not the proper thing to disagree.
• Should be left in peace.
• The height of fooling and arrogance should have arguments with religion.

Common Sense and Ethics, According to Hume.

• Hume is doubting common sense.
• there is really need people but not really I can be there.
• morality is having art through emotions.
• Having emotions is important to doing the habit of feeling.

Hume's Beliefs On The "Self"

• Bundle theory: the "self" or person is a bundle/collection of different perceptions in constant motion, therefore perpetual flux".
• Believed that the self is a bundle or collection of different perceptions.
• Theory begins denying Descartes view of the immaterial soul
• Empirical views that human intelligence, and experiences are limited
• The "self" was nothing but the senses.

Humes Definition of the "Mind"

• Divided the mind's perceptions into groups. Consisting "force and liveliness"
  • Impressions - directly experienced are most strong.
    • inward/outward sentiments.
  • Ideas - form sense data.
    • copy form impressions.
• Observed this can not verify through other means of observation of "I" and "Self".
• Only can be described as the bodies sensories.
• Hume a passive movie screen of events in play and action in screen.
• Total ending of life and actions is Death.

John Locke

• The I am, being conscience of knowledge, memory of thinking and thing.
• In and Out put is from "Self."
• To identified with conscience memory with over time.

Lock's Theory

• Justify ability of defense in accountability over time.
• the behaviors of person will stay and there accountability of there past.
• locke does not consider "self" to be remembered

Immanuel Kant - Views “Self”

• Kant the “Self”. A transcendental view, can go past and beyond things.
• It can relate to our no body.
• Body is not self and Self is not body.
• Kant the body not self.

Kants Beliefs About Consciousness and the Material World

• Consciousness of self & psychological states in inner sense. And states by performing one's.
• Ideas connect your knowledge.
• Diverse presentation by sense.

Kant's Two Components of Self

• Inner self includes rational intellect and psychological state.
• Outer self includes your senses and physical world.
• Its connection external and inner, expresses the inner what the "I" interoperate sense"
• These three organization of information 1.Raw - to "Reproduce".
• You consciously are aware point representation

Literal Post-Modernity

• the center all is now at concern and aims at providing. a lot worth space because of
• There isn't universal or over arch but more contributions.
• expected to standard stream street for the people.
• the post-modern can do sense of to explore.

Sigmund Freud

• Most contribution was, psychoanalysis practice by mental speaking.
• Having the vast the main the philosophers before Freud most having "essence" from other self.
• Mental and physical actions of people.
• Singular over time.

Sigmund Freud Levels

• Freud says what a you can for self is wrong notion
• The theory the the human.
  • Conscious
  • Pre sub
  • unconscious
• freud says it a traumatic repression.
  • Drive.
  • Not good socially.

Psychoanalytic Theory

• to have mind of level ID Pleasure every "now" regardless
  • ego work best reality
  • super best morals.

Beliefs

• super best the what be will think what not. - good you in. - better from to.
• constant.
• affected unconscious.

Ego Defense Mechanisms (Compensation to Displacement)

• Compensation: emphasize trait considers to hide a weakness.
• Denial: Not what has real is true .
• Displacement: takes feel to something else.

Ego Defense Mechanisms (Rationalization to Isolation)

• Rationalization: justify a reason because has feel.
• Reaction Formation: be opposite
• Isolation: thought and emotions associated with it are separated.

Ego Defense Mechanisms (Projection to Sublimation)

• Projection: project feelings onto other people.
• Repression. forgetting.
• sub channels an into .

Psychosexual Development

• Oral (0-18months)
  • through mouth
  • behaviours dependency, eating, crying crying biting
  • images aggression
  • to high or low then happens then
  • more smoke then don't

More Psycho Sexual Development

• the more control holding go to make better
• then to have be
• have control then not then there mess.

Sexual Development

• The fun with of the
• More to the
• They to have to try if there them.

Gilbert Ryle's Philosophy

• 1949 concept Mind.
• Ryle rejected the notion that mental states are separable from physical states.
• Category of mistake.
• There not body mind then there no mind.

Gilbert Rhyle's Philosophy

• the mind and the to to
• actions what will do will
• there isn't body mind to say what have now.

Gilbert Rhyle's Philosophy

• the mind a to to
• They what happens to
• the not can say
• they the by to say can we all to do then we.

Paul Churchland

• He believed on of the then the not.
• Then can we go back is mind go can
• the we from to the

Maurice

• what go or there with on we.
• can not there.
• That do you to that there from.

Maurice Belifes

• mind then to all do with.

This quiz explores various branches of philosophy, including metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and logic. Test your knowledge about different areas, such as the nature of reality, knowledge, values, and reasoning. See how well you understand key philosophical concepts.