The Science of Cooking: Every Question Answered - PDF

 SCIENCE COOKING of the  SCIENCE COOKING of the D R. STU A RT FA R R IMO ND  Senior Editors First American Edition, 2017 Bob Bridle, Claire Cross Published in the United States by DK Publishing...

 SCIENCE COOKING of the  SCIENCE COOKING of the D R. STU A RT FA R R IMO ND  Senior Editors First American Edition, 2017 Bob Bridle, Claire Cross Published in the United States by DK Publishing 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014 Senior Art Editors Copyright © 2017 Dorling Kindersley Limited Alison Gardner, Kathryn Wilding DK, a Division of Penguin Random House LLC Editors 17 18 19 20 21 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 001—261482—Sept/2017 Alice Kewellhampton, Shashwati Tia Sarkar Toby Mann All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under the copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be US Editors reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, Cheri Clark, Lori Hand or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise), without Designers the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Vicky Read, Rehan Adbul Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited. Illustrators A catalog record for this book is available from Peter Bull, Nick Radord, Andy@KJA-artists the Library of Congress. ISBN 978-1-4654-6369-2 Senior Jacket Creative Nicola Powling NOTE: The author and publisher advocate sustainable food choices, and every effort has been made to include only Jackets Assistant sustainable foods in this book. Food sustainability is, however, Laura Bithell a shifting landscape, and so we encourage readers to keep up to date with advice on this subject, so that they are equipped Senior Pre-production Producer to make their own ethical choices. Tony Phipps DK books are available at special discounts when purchased Senior Producer in bulk for sales promotions, premiums, fund-raising, or Ché Creasey educational use. For details, contact: DK Publishing Special Markets, 345 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10014 Creative Technical Support [email protected] Sonia Charbonnier, Tom Morse Printed and bound in China Managing Editor All images © Dawn Henderson Dorling Kindersley Limited For further information see: Managing Art Editor www.dkimages.com Marianne Markham A WORLD OF IDEAS: Art Director SEE ALL THERE IS TO KNOW Maxine Pedliham www.dk.com Publishing Director Mary-Clare Jerram CONTENTS FOREWORD 8 TASTE AND FLAVOR 10 FISH AND SEAFOOD 64 In Focus: FISH 66 KITCHEN ESSENTIALS 20 The Process of PAN-FRYING 76 The Process of SOUS VIDE 84 An Essential Guide to KNIVES 22 An Essential Guide to POTS AND PANS 24 EGGS AND DAIRY 92 An Essential Guide to UTENSILS 26 In Focus: EGGS 94 MEAT AND POULTRY 28 In Focus: MILK 108 In Focus: CHEESE 120 In Focus: MEAT 30 The Process of GRILLING 44 The Process of SLOW COOKING 54 RICE, GRAINS, AND PASTA 126 HERBS, SPICES, OILS, AND FLAVORINGS 178 In Focus: RICE 128 The Process of PRESSURE COOKING 134 In Focus: HERBS 180 In Focus: CHILES 188 In Focus: OIL AND FAT 194 VEGETABLES, FRUITS, NUTS, AND SEEDS 146 BAKING AND The Process of STEAMING 152 SWEET THINGS 206 In Focus: POTATOES 160 The Process of MICROWAVING 164 In Focus: FLOUR 208 In Focus: NUTS 174 The Process of OVEN BAKING 222 In Focus: SUGAR 230 In Focus: CHOCOLATE 236 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS AND INDEX 244  Dr. Stuart Farrimond FOREWORD Every cook knows that preparing food for others can bring a joy that is even more fulfilling than eating. Cooking is termed an “art” and is steeped in rituals sprinkling of chemistry shows why a steak left to and processes that chefs throughout the ages have sizzle on a hot grill evolves from a bland and chewy followed blindly. Many of these “rules,” however, serve hunk of flesh into a mouthwatering, meaty delight. to confuse and stifle creativity. Science and logic show With striking imagery and diagrams, this book us that often customs are simply wrong. For example, delves into the most commonly used cooking beans do not need to be soaked for hours before processes and techniques; shines a spotlight on core cooking, meat does not need to be rested to seal in ingredients, such as meat, fish, dairy, spices, flour, and juices, and marinated meat can taste better if left for eggs; and offers a guide on how to equip your kitchen one hour, rather than five. with the best gear. In this book, I answer more than 160 of the most Writing in informal language and with minimal common culinary questions and conundrums, drawing jargon, my aim is for you, the reader to understand on the latest research to give meaningful and practical more of the science of food and cooking to help lift answers. I show that science can be a vehicle for fully the lid on their creativity. No longer shackled by the appreciating the wonders that we see in the kitchen rules of a recipe, cooks can use science to invent every day. With the aid of a microscope, we can see dishes and experiment. After you read this book, I how a whisk transforms the yellow slime of egg white sincerely hope that you feel inspired and equipped to into a snow-white cotton-like meringue. And a cook in a new way that will both delight and surprise. “My aim is for you, the reader to understand more of the science of food and cooking, to help lift the lid on your creativity.” TASTE FLAVOR & 012 // 013 The Science of Taste and Flavor Why do we COOK? To think of cooking as purely functional would be to look at just one aspect of it. There are various reasons to cook food, but Cooking helps digestion Fat melts, chewy essentially our very existence pivots on our ability to connective tissue in meat softens into nutritious cook. Cooking makes food more edible and, in so gelatin, and proteins unravel, or “denature,” doing, cuts down on the time it takes to digest it. from their tightly coiled structure into ones that Great apes, our primate ancestors, spend 80 percent digestive enzymes can break down more easily. of their day chewing food. Learning to grind, purée, dry, or preserve food helped us to digest it Starches are softened When heated in water, more speedily, but it was the advent of cooking, at clustered granules of hard-to-digest carbohydrates least one million years ago, that enabled us to unravel and soften. This “gelatinization” of energy- spend less time chewing and digesting food and dense starches transforms vegetables and cereal more time thinking and focusing on other pursuits. flours so the intestines can easily process them. Today, we spend just five percent of our day eating. So how else does cooking food benefit us? Nutrients are released Without cooking foods to break down their starches, significant amounts It makes food safe Cooking destroys bacteria, of a food’s nourishment are locked up in microbes, and many of the toxins these produce. “resistant” starch that cannot be digested. Raw meat and fish can be rendered safe, and heat Heating also forces some of the vitamins and destroys many plant toxins, such as the deadly minerals that are confined inside cells to be substance, phytohemagglutinin, in kidney beans. liberated, increasing how much of these essential substances the body can absorb. Flavors multiply Cooking makes food taste incredible. Heat browns meats, vegetables, breads, It helps us socialize The ritual of cooking and and cakes; caramelizes sugars; and releases locked- sharing is entrenched in our psyche, bringing in flavors from herbs and spices in a process families and friends together. Research shows that known as the Maillard reaction (see pp16–17). regularly eating with others improves well-being. “Cooked food tastes incredible. Cooking releases locked-in flavors and brings new textures to foods.” TO ENHANCE FLAVOR TO AID TO MAKE DIGESTION FOOD SAFE TO HELP US TO SOFTEN SOCIALIZE STARCHES TO RELEASE NUTRIENTS 014 // 015 The Science of Taste and Flavor How do we TASTE? Taste is a surprisingly complex process. Taste signals are relayed to the thalamus, which passes signals to other regions of the brain. A multisensory experience, taste involves aroma, texture, and heat, all combining to create an overall impression. As you inhale, airborne molecules of food are As you lift food to your lips, before any food vacuumed up into the nose. actually reaches the tongue, aromas flood the nostrils. Teeth then break down food, releasing more aromas, and the food’s When signals reach the frontal lobe, we become aware of what texture, or “mouthfeel,” becomes we are smelling and tasting. critical to its appreciation. In the mouth, more flavor-carrying particles waft to the back of FRONTAL the oral cavity, up to the smell THALAMUS LOBE receptors, but now they are experienced as if coming from the tongue. Sweet, salty, bitter, sour, umami, and fatty taste receptors (see opposite) are stimulated, and a cascade of messages filters to the brain. As you chew, hot food cools, increasing taste intensity: at 86–95ºF (30–35ºC), taste receptors are most active. TONGUE MYTH BU STER Myth Taste receptors on the DIFFERENT TONGUE REGIONS DETECT DIFFERENT TASTES tongue register basic tastes. Truth In 1901, German scientist D. P. Hänig promoted the idea Nerves carry taste that different tastes were stronger in different parts of the messages to the brain. tongue. This research was later used to create a “taste map.” Now, we know that all tastes are sensed across the tongue Aroma molecules pass to the smell sensors and difference in sensitivity across the tongue is negligible. NERVE PATHWAYS at the back of the nose. Here the brain FOR TASTE interprets them as taste from the mouth.  SALTY SWEET SALTY TASTE REC EP TORS P R IM A R ILY T R IG G E R E D B Y A RE STI MUL ATED BY S ODI U M S U G A R S , S W E E T TA S T E ( TYPICA LLY I N S ALT) , R E C E P T O R S S IG N A L T H AT I MPORTA NT F OR K EEP I NG A F O O D IS A S O U R C E O F THE B ODY’S I NTERNAL S ALT E A S ILY D IG E S T E D LEVEL S BA LANC ED. E N E R G Y. SOUR BITTER FATTY WHEN REC EP TORS DETEC T B IT T E R TA S T E R E C E P T O R S IN T H E L A S T D E CA D E , AC I DS I N FR U I TS , THI S A R E T R IG G E R E D B Y A W ID E R E S E A R C H H A S S H O WN TH AT S U GGES TS A S OU RC E OF R A N G E O F P OT E N T IA L LY TA S T E R E C E P T O R CE L L S CA N V I TAM I N C ( AS C ORBI C AC I D) , H A R MFU L NATURAL TOXIC S E N S E FAT M O L ECU L E S I N OR AC TS AS A WARNI NG SUBSTANCES, AL ERT IN G T H E F O O D, IN D ICAT IN G TH AT TH E THAT A FOOD I S B O DY T O DA N G E R O U S F O O D IS A R IC H SO U R CE DECAY I NG. F O O D. O F E N E R GY. UMAMI UMAMI RECEPTORS DETECT SAVORY, MEATY TASTES, S T IM U L AT E D B Y G L U TA M AT E F R O M A N A M IN O A C ID, W H IC H S U G G E S T S T H AT A F O O D P R O V ID E S P R OT E IN. 016 // 017 The Science of Taste and Flavor Why does cooked T HE MA ILLA RD RE A C T IO N FOOD Amino acids—the building blocks of proteins—clash with nearby sugar molecules (even meats contain traces of sugar) to fuse into new substances. Fused molecules fling themselves apart and crash into others to combine, separate, TASTE and reform in countless ways. Hundreds of new substances are born, some brown in color and many carrying aromas. As the temperature climbs, more changes occur. The exact flavors and aromas generated by browning depend on a food’s unique combination of protein types and sugars. SO GOOD? BE F O RE Taste is a surprisingly complex process. UP TO 284°F 140°C W HAT 'S G O IN G O N ? The start of cooking In 1912, French medical researcher Louis-Camille The temperature needs to reach about 284ºF Maillard made a discovery that would leave a lasting (140ºC) before sugar molecules and amino impact on cooking science. He analyzed how the acids have enough energy to react together. While the outer layers of the food are damp, building blocks of proteins (amino acids) and sugars react it will not warm above the boiling point of together, and uncovered a complex family of reactions water (212ºF/100ºC), so surface moisture that begin to take place when protein-containing foods, must be driven off by dry heat first. such as meats, nuts, cereals, and many vegetables, reach around 284ºF (140ºC). We now call these molecular changes the “Maillard reaction,” and they help us make sense of the many ways in which food browns and takes on flavor as it W H AT' S GO IN G O N ? cooks. Seared steak, crispy fish skin, the aromatic crust on bread, and even the aroma of toasted nuts and spices are all thanks to this reaction. The interplay of the two components creates enticing aromas unique to each food. Understanding the Maillard reaction helps the cook in many ways: adding fructose-rich honey to AMINO ACIDS SUGARS a marinade fuels the reaction; pouring cream into (PROTEINS) simmering sugar provides milk proteins and sugars for butterscotch and caramel flavors; and brushing pastry with egg provides extra protein for the crust to brown.  Why Does Cooked Food Taste So Good? 284ºF (140ºC) is around when Maillard reactions begin, creating new flavors and aromas. D URING THE MA IL L ARD REACT IO N AFTER 284–320+°F 140–160+°C 356°F > 180°C > 284°F (140°C) 302°F (150°C) 320°F (160°C) 356°F (180°C) At around 284ºF (140ºC) Maillard reactions intensify As the temperature increases, When food reaches 356ºF (180ºC), another protein-containing foods start to as the temperature rises. As molecular changes continue reaction called pyrolysis, or burning, begins turn brown in the Maillard reaction. food reaches 302ºF (150ºC), and more enticing new flavors and food starts to char, destroying aromas This is also called the “browning it generates new flavor and aromas are created—the and leaving acrid, bitter flavors. Carbohydrates, reaction,” but color is just part molecules twice as quickly flavor enhancement peaks at proteins, and then fats, break down, producing of the story. At 284ºF (140ºC), as it did at 284ºF (140ºC), this point. There are now some potentially harmful substances. Watch proteins and sugars clash and adding more complex cascades of malty, nutty, meaty, food closely and remove from the heat fuse, creating hundreds of new flavors and aromas. and caramel-like flavors. before it begins to blacken. flavor and aroma substances. Amino acids and sugars start to combine Flavor reactions Flavor reactions Carbohydrates and proteins to create new flavors. double in speed. accelerate to a peak. form black, acrid substances. 018 // 019 The Science of Taste and Flavor RED WINE The nutty aromas from benzaldehyde, oak aromas from lactones, and smoky and Why do some tobacco flavors, interplay with roasted beef flavors. flavors go together BEER Strong-tasting, dark beers carry SO WELL? spicy notes along with brothy flavor compounds that link to flavors created when beef undergoes Maillard browning (see pp16–17). Taste is a surprisingly complex process. COFFEE Many of coffee’s 200-plus Each food has characteristic flavor compounds, complex, rich flavors are due the chemicals that lend it its aroma, pungency, to the roasting of beans, which share compounds and taste. The names and chemical formulas of created when beef is these varied substances include fruity esters, spicy seared or roasted. phenolics, flowery and citrusy terpenes, and piquant sulfur-containing molecules. Until recently, discovering foods that worked together well was largely trial and error, but a rise in MIL K experimental chefs has seen a new “science” Grass-fed beef pairs well with of food pairing. Researchers have cataloged the heated milk flavors, owing to pasture-raised cattle’s higher flavor compounds of hundreds of foods, showing concentration of fatty-flavored, that classical food combinations do share many fragrant lactone chemicals present flavor compounds, while also revealing more in the meat. unusual matches. However, the theories do not account for a food’s texture and don’t always hold true for Asian and Indian cuisines, where spice combinations have very few or no flavor links. Here we look at which foods pair well with beef based on shared flavor compounds. BUTTER The thicker the line, the more shared flavor compounds there are. Two highly potent flavor molecules that convey butter’s buttery and creamy aroma, diacetyl and COLOR KEY acetoin, are shared by beef. These rich notes are greatest in prime cuts. MEAT GRAINS SPICE FISH AND VEGETABLES ALCOHOL SEAFOOD EGGS PLANT AND DAIRY DERIVATIVES  WHEAT The browned crust of wheat bread shares numerous highly aromatic flavor compounds with roasted beef (thanks to the Maillard reaction, see pp16–17). BLACK TEA Among the dozens of chemicals, methylpropanal conveys malty notes Smoky compounds in black and pyrroline molecules imbue the tea generated from drying, shared earthy, roast-like, and heating, and the aging popcorn-like notes. of tea leaves after picking closely match and intensify those of roasted beef. FENUGREEK Fenugreek owes its curry-like aroma to BEEF a chemical called sotolon, which at low levels has the flavor of maple syrup. ONION The same molecule exists in roasted ROASTED BEEF PRODUCES A beef. Add fenugreek leaves to a sauce RANGE OF MEATY, BROTHY, Cooked and browned onions or toast the spices alongside beef to enhance these subtle notes GRASSY, EARTHY, AND SPICY (often incorrectly termed while adding new spicy FLAVORS, AND ANALYSIS “caramelized”) have a variety of sulfur-containing “oniony” and flowery aromas. REVEALS THAT IT IS THE flavor molecules, INGREDIENT THAT SHARES THE similar to those in MOST FLAVOR COMPOUNDS WITH cooked beef. OTHER FOODS. EGG PEANUT BUTTER EDAMAME When cooked, the fats in egg yolks The heating and grinding of Edamame beans are legumes break down into a variety of new peanuts in butter making with refreshing green flavors, such as “green” and creates nutty-flavored flavors, but when cooked “grassy” hexanal, and the fatty, pyrazines and fried, smoky they also have parallels “fried” aroma molecule aromas, that pair extremely with the nutty decadienal, both of which well with beef. aromas of beef. are found in cooked beef. GARLIC CAVIAR Savory garlic flavors are carried by powerful Fish eggs are a surprising pairing sulfur-containing aroma with beef, but protein- and fat-rich compounds, some of which caviar is an intense source of have meaty, beefy, and “raw MUSHROOMS savory umami (from glutamic meat” characteristics. acid) and also carries meat-like Rich in brothy, savory-tasting amine aroma compounds. glutamic acid (glutamate), mushrooms generate sulfur-containing meaty flavor compounds when cooked. KITCHEN ESSENTIALS 022 // 023 The Science of Kitchen Essentials The cutting edge is called the bevel, where the metal narrows to a fraction of a millimeter. An essential guide to Carbon steel KNIVES This metal is a simple blend of iron and carbon (unlike other steels that have extra elements added). A well-cared-for blade can stay sharp longer than stainless steel, but carbon steel is prone to rust; so knives require careful maintenance, A few select knives meet most kitchen needs. cleaning, drying, and oiling. Many chefs consider good-quality, durable, sharp Stainless steel Chromium is added to the iron–carbon mix to produce a knives among their most prized possessions. more flexible, rust-resistant steel. Good-quality stainless steel has a fine grain for sharpness, and it can be alloyed How knives are constructed with other metals for durability. Easy to sharpen and strong, stainless steel is often most practical for the home cook. Knives are either stamped or forged. The most widely sold are lightweight stamped blades, made by punching a hole out of a sheet of steel. Forged Ceramic Very sharp, light, and hard, ceramic blades are a good choice blades are made by beating, heating, and cooling for cutting through meat. The blades are usually made of metal, which forces metal atoms into minute crystal zirconium oxide, ground to a razor-sharp edge. The blades clusters, creating a more durable “fine-grained” don’t rust, but are hard to sharpen and don’t flex like steel, so they can easily break or chip if they hit bone or are dropped. metal. The following is a guide to the basic knives every cook should own. S ERRATED K NIFE Use for Foods that have a tough crust or smooth, delicate skin, such as bread, cake, or large tomatoes where precision isn’t required. What to look for A carving knife should be thinner than a chef’s A long blade, a comfortable handle, and knife as it is used to make the finest of cuts. deep, pointed serrations. Comfort and grip are more important than the actual handle material.  An Essential Guide to Knives The blade can extend fully or partially through the handle, known as its “tang.” A full tang gives more flexibility. C HE F ’S K N IF E Use for Finely slicing, dicing, disjointing large cuts of meat, and crushing garlic cloves with the side of the blade. A large curvature has What to look for PARING KNIFE a rocking movement A handle that fits your hand and isn’t for fine chopping, overly heavy. The knife should feel Use for while a flatter curve balanced and weighty enough to Slicing, peeling, coring, and is ideal for slicing. divide meat from bone. delicate work such as stripping out vanilla beans. What to look for Forged blades tend to taper toward A thin blade that’s either spear-pointed, or, for fast, precise cuts, the tip; stamped blades are the same is flat so it’s flush with the board. thickness the length of the blade. When the blade broadens near the A shorter blade (2½–4in/6–10cm) handle, this is called a “bolster” allows for precision work. and indicates a forged metal. C A RVIN G K N I FE Aim for fewer than 40 serrations and a thin Use for blade. Fewer serrations will pierce skin Making thin cuts of meat more cleanly and with greater pressure. from a large cut. What to look for A long, thin, very sharp cutting edge with a pointed tip. It should have less curvature than the chef’s knife as it’s for slicing rather than rocking. Sawlike points exert intense pressure over a tiny area to puncture the surface, then the scalloped blades slide into the crevices to slice food open. 024 // 025 The Science of Kitchen Essentials 4 quart (20cm) saucepan for Stainless steel–clad 3 quart (18cm) large portions of rice or pasta, aluminum is easy-care saucepan for and soups, stews, and stocks. and heat-efficient. cooking small meals and boiling vegetables. An essential guide to POTS AND PANS A good core collection helps to give great results. The type of metal you choose for your cookware affects how food cooks, but more important is a pan’s thickness: the thicker the base, the more Stainless steel Heavy, durable stainless steel is good for everyday saucepans, evenly the heat from the burner spreads across it. but conducts heat poorly (unless clad around aluminum or Corrodible metals such as carbon steel and cast copper), and food sticks easily. The shiny surface makes it easy to iron should be “seasoned” before first use by heating see when food is browning when deglazing or making a sauce. with oil three or four times to form a nonstick “patina.” Store-bought nonstick pans have a waxy Copper resin, but this degrades above 500ºF (260ºC), so Heavy and expensive but responsive to temperature changes, a thick-based copper pan conducts heat faster than other materials. they suit delicate foods that stick, such as fish. It reacts to acid and may be coated to avoid discoloring food and leaving a metallic taste. It’s too heavy to suit sauté pans or woks. Aluminum Conducts heat quickly, making it very responsive to temperature changes, but loses heat rapidly off the stove. It is lightweight, so good for frying pans, sauté pans, and saucepans. “Anodized” aluminum has a coating to keep it from reacting with acidic foods. Carbon steel is sturdy but WOK heat-responsive. C A S T- IRO N S K IL L E T Use for Stir-frying over the hottest flame, steaming, and deep-fat frying. What to look for Use for A tight-fitting lid, a thin base, and long sturdy Root veg, meats, sticky foods (if seasoned), handle. Avoid nonstick, which won’t tolerate putting under the broiler and in the oven. high stir-frying heats. Carbon steel is ideal; to season it, scrub off the existing oil coat, heat What to look for to blacken, add oil to smoke, then rub off the A long, heat-proof handle (cast iron retains oil when cool. Do this 3–4 times before use. heat) and a grip handle to aid in lifting.  An Essential Guide to Pots and Pans ROUND CASSERO LE DIS H 2 quart (16cm) Use for saucepan for Slow-braising meats. melting butter, What to look for caramelizing A tight-fitting lid and easy-to-grasp handles. sugar, making Although heavy, cast iron is ideal because it sauces, and keeps a steady temperature, and an enamel poaching eggs. interior is durable and doesn’t react with acids. SAU CEPANS Cast iron retains heat A round base, rather than oval, Use for for slow cooking. heats evenly over the burner. Sauces, stews, soups, stocks, boiling vegetables, rice, and pasta. What to look for Lids to retain moisture, and an extra 10IN (24C M) N O N S T IC K small-grip handle on large pans to aid in F RYIN G PA N lifting. Heat-proof handles are oven-friendly. Use for Delicate fish, eggs, and crêpes. Long handle What to look for A thick base and thick nonstick coat— choose from a reputable supplier. Carbon steel This heats up faster than stainless steel, but like iron, it rusts and reacts with foods, so it needs to be seasoned to make it as durable as stainless steel. It is best for woks, frying pans, and skillets. Cast iron Lightweight A thick base spreads heat Very heavy, cast iron is dense and heats slowly, but, once heated, stainless steel- it retains heat well and is ideal for browning meat in a skillet or and avoids hot spots. clad aluminium casserole. Bare cast iron rusts and reacts with acidic foods, so season it to form a protective nonstick seal and clean carefully. makes it easy to Curved sides are ideal toss food. for whisking and gravies. When seasoned, cast iron is nonstick, but Small avoid abrasive cleaners. grip handle 12IN (30C M) S AU T É PAN Use for Searing and frying large batches; creating sauces and large meals. What to look for A tight-fitting lid to hold moisture, a long handle, and a moderately heavy base.  ME A S U RIN G C U P A clear tempered glass jug accurately judges liquid volumes. Because of water’s surface tension, it is tricky to judge its natural downward bulge in a cup. DIG ITA L S C A LE S Good-quality ones are more precise than analogue. Look for a base that An essential guide to accommodates a large bowl, a weight capacity of at least UTENSILS 11lb (5kg), a clear display, and accuracy to a tenth (0.1) of a unit. Different models and materials will suit particular cooking needs. It’s difficult to make good food without the HO N IN G S T E E L appropriate tools. A handful of key utensils Metal steels realign and will enable you to craft fantastic dishes. straighten a worn knife edge, rather than sharpen it. Choose a heavy steel, What you need 10in (25cm) long. There are more materials and varieties of kitchen Diamond-coated and ceramic steels grind some tools and utensils than ever before, but when metal off, so can partially RO LLIN G P IN choosing, carefully consider the pros and cons sharpen knives. Wood holds flour well and doesn’t of each piece of equipment. Not every invention conduct heat from the hands. Opt for a handleless, long pin with a tapered is a step forwards—pay attention to how shape for pivoting and tilting. versatile it is and how the material works with different ingredients. OT HER US EF UL ITEMS · A Y-shaped peeler can be used by left- and right-handed cooks. Choose a sharp blade with a 1in (2.5cm) gap between blade and handle to prevent clogging. · For turning and lifting food, look for tongs with a firm spring action and scalloped fingers. Heat-resistant silicone ends BA LLO O N W H I SK can be used on all surfaces. Choose a balloon-shaped whisk with · Look for a food processor with sharp, sturdy blades, a at least 10 wires for versatility and dough blade, slicing and shredding disks, and a motor efficiency. Metal gives whisks a hard housed under the work bowl (rather than a belt). edge that aerates well and breaks up fat globules. Silicone whisks are an · Choose a masher with a long, rigid metal handle and a alternative for nonstick surfaces. mashing disk with small, round, rather than wavy, holes. · Useful cake-pan features include a quick-release clasp and removable base. G RAT E R · For a mortar and pestle, opt for a hard, slightly rough Choose one with a large grating surface. surface, such as granite. A sturdy-based four-sided box grater has holes for coarse shredding, fine grating, zesting, and powdering.  An Essential Guide to Utensils S LO T T E D SPO O N Look for a long-handled, deep-bowled spoon. Stainless steel is thin and rigid so more adept at sliding under floating META L S IE VE morsels than bulkier plastic or silicone. Metal wires produce a very fine-mesh sieve to keep the smallest particles from passing through. A hook opposite the handle lets a sieve rest over a pan. LADLE A long-handled, stainless steel ladle skims fat and froth from a stew or stock. A ladle made from one piece of metal will last longer than one with a welded-on bowl. ME TA L S PAT U L A A broad, long, slotted spatula that is thin and flexible is ideal for sliding under delicate foods. For nonstick cookware, use a sturdy plastic or silicone one. RU BBE R SPAT U L A A rubber spatula is ideal for delicate work, T HER MOMETER such as folding in whipped egg whites or Look for one with a probe that can rest in a tempering chocolate. A heat-proof silicone pan. Those that read to 410ºF (210ºC), can spatula is best for hot foods. also be used for caramelizing sugar. W O O DE N SPO O N Wood is easy on nonstick surfaces and metal and is a poor conductor of heat, so the handle stays cool in hot food. A porous material, it absorbs food particles and flavors so it needs thorough cleaning. C HO P P IN G BO A RD M IX ING BOWL S Durable and good for all foods, Stainless steel lasts a long time, but can’t wooden boards have “give” so they be put in a microwave. Tempered glass is don’t dull knives, unlike granite and heat-resistant and microwave-friendly. glass. Plastic traps bacteria in grooves, Ceramic and stoneware can chip, are slow while wood has bacteria-killing to warm, so ideal for working with dough. tannins, making it a hygienic choice. MEAT POULTRY & In focus 030 // 031 MEAT Meat forms the centerpiece of most traditional cooking. Understanding its structure and composition helps you make the most of your cut. KNOW YOUR MEAT The components of different meats—the As varied as meats can appear, they are be conserved to keep cooked meat juicy. relative proportions of fat to muscle, the quantity of connective tissue, and the type all made of the same three tissues: muscle, fat, Connective tissue forms sheathes around of muscle in the cut—determine their and connective tissue. The varying proportions muscle fibers and connects muscles to bone— ratios of fat and protein. All meats are great of these tissues and the type of muscle tissue it slowly breaks down during cooking, sources of protein; here we compare them. The Science of Meat and Poultry in the cut determine the flavor and texture of imparting rich flavor to meat dishes. However, a piece of meat, and therefore its best culinary at higher temperatures, connective tissue purpose. Muscle, which powers movement in shrinks and squeezes moisture out of the meat. WHITE MEAT the living animal, is red or pink in color and Fat is chewy and bland uncooked, but imparts makes up the bulk of most cuts of meat. It is huge amounts of flavor when the fat cells burst Chicken open during cooking. Pale-colored chicken 70 to 85 percent water—moisture that needs to meat is not high in fat, so it has a dry mouthfeel if overcooked. Cooking it in a sauce can help FAT: ME DIU M to introduce moisture. P ROTE IN: HIGH SCIE NCE COOKING Duck CO N NE CTI VE TI SSU E L O N G , S L O W C O O K IN G Rich, dark duck meat IS M A DE OF PROTEI N S T R A N S F O R M S C O N N E C T IV E has a thick layer of TH AT SOF TE N AND BR E AK T IS S U E IN T O V E LV E T Y fat under the skin. D OW N WHE N HE ATE D G E L AT IN , G IV IN G M E AT Roasting, frying, or TO 126 °F (52°C). IT S S U C C U L E N C E. grilling works best; prick or score the skin FAT: ME DIU M first to help the fat melt. CONNECTIVE TISSUE P ROTE IN : ME DIU M Tough connective tissue joins muscle fibers together, and Turkey connects muscle to the bone. With lots of muscle and little fat, white Bone-in cuts turkey meat is good In this T-bone steak, a section of for stir-frying and bone divides the lean fillet meat grilling. The dark from the higher-fat sirloin, offering leg meat contains a range of textures. more connective tissue and can FAT: L OW be stewed. P ROTE IN: HIGH  RED MEAT Beef A cow’s large endurance muscles produce dark, rich meat that suits both slow and fast cooking methods. Cuts that contain muscle marbled with fat will FAT: HIGH be more succulent. P ROTE IN : ME DIU M Lamb FILLET Fat provides lambs with their day-to-day fuel, so most cuts are SIRLOIN marbled with fat. Lamb is suited to most methods of cooking, but the sinewy shoulder and leg cuts need to be FAT: ME DIU M SCIENCE cooked down slowly. P ROTE IN : ME DIU M Fat is made up EA CH FAT CE L L CON TAI NS of millions of A D R OPL E T OF O IL. THE SE tightly packed, Pork BURST OPEN WHEN HEATED, bubblelike cells. Ranging from pale D I SSOLVI NG F L AVO R pink to rose, pork M O L E CUL E S. cuts often have a thick layer of fat that helps keep the meat Fat layer moist when cooking. Fat is usually Lean fillets and steaks found tucked under require fast cooking the skin, alongside methods to stop them FAT: HIGH connective tissue, from drying out. P ROTE IN: L OWE ST or around organs. Venison As deer are ranging animals, deer meat contains more muscle COO KING SCIENCE COOKING and connective tissue than fat. Braise or TAST EL E SS WHE N R AW, MU S C L E IS M A D E O F TENDER CUTS NEED stew small, lean cuts FAT T UR NS I NTO O IL WHE N T H O U S A N D S O F H A IR - M IN IM A L C O O K IN G to conserve moisture, COO KE D, CA RRY IN G W ID T H S T R A N D S , PA C K E D T O RETAIN MOISTURE. or roast large cuts, F L AVOR AN D G I VIN G A W IT H M O IS T U R E A N D MARBLED MUSCLE CAN BE which will have a lot P R OT E IN. COOKED SLOWLY. FAT: L OW MOIST MOUTHFEEL. of connective tissue. P ROTE IN: HIGH In Focus: Meat FAT MUSCLE 032 // 033 The Science of Meat and Poultry How can I tell IF MEAT IS GOOD QUALITY? With so much meat plastic-wrapped and displayed under harsh supermarket lighting, it can be hard to spot a top cut. We tend to believe that the freshest, most flavorful red meat is bright cherry-red, W HAT T O LO O K F O R but is this always the case? Ask your IN RE D ME AT butcher for their tastiest cut, and you might be shown one with a darker Consider the following points hue that has been aged over time when buying red meat to help to create a deeper flavor and more you judge its quality and tender texture (see opposite). inform your choice: The checklist, right, shows you how to judge meat when making FAT E NH A NC E S a purchase to help you choose F L AVO R. A Y E L L OW the best possible cut. H U E SI M PLY SUGGE S TS T H E A NI M A L WAS WHAT TO LOO K FO R G R A SS- F ED. IN WH IT E MEAT T H E S U R FA C E S H OU L D B E S M O OT H A N D N OT A PPE A R Use this checklist to help you S T IC K Y O R S L IM Y, WH I CH choose the freshest white meat: C O U L D S U G G E S T TH AT B A C T E R IA H AVE P R O L IF E R AT E D O N T H E S U R FA CE. BREAST MEAT SHOULD BE FIRM MEAT SHOULD AND PLUMP. HAVE A MILD BUT NOT UNPLEASANT SMELL. B O N E S S HOU L D FLES H S HOU LD BE F O R T E N D E R C U T S , C H O O S E O N E WI TH B E IN TAC T — BLEM I S H A F IN E G R A IN A N D L IT T L E C O N N E CTI VE -FREE. T IS S U E. F O R T O U G H C U T S , T H E G R A I N N OT BROK E N. W IL L B E T H IC K E R , IN D ICAT I N G TH E M U S C L E WA S W E L L - U SE D. THE SKIN SHOULD F O R S T E W IN G , L O O K MARBLING IS F O R C U T S W IT H FAT A GOOD SIGN THAT BE SMOOTH A N D C O N N E C T IV E MEAT AND SOFT. T IS S U E. IS FULL OF FLAVOR. WHITE CHICKEN BREAST RED BEEF RUMP  Should I Avoid Buying Meat That Has Turned Brown? Should I avoid buying MEAT THAT HAS TURNED BROWN? JUST BUTCHERED Meat vacuum-packed The color of meat alone is not a reliable after slaughter can have a natural purple hue. 0hr indicator of its freshness or quality. The natural color of meat comes from a red oxygen-carrying pigment, myoglobin, stored in the muscle tissue (see p34). Different animals have varying levels of myoglobin, with red meat containing more Vacuum-packed than white and older animals having meat is deprived higher levels, giving their meat a darker of oxygen, so is hue. Vacuum-packed meat deprived of dark in color. 3 HOURS oxygen has a natural purple tinge. Once Exposed to oxygen, in contact with air, myoglobin changes meat changes to a bright red color. 3hr color, turning meat bright red. If it stays purple, this suggests that the animal may have been stressed at slaughter and its meat will be dry and firm. When meat is dry-aged by butchers, it darkens, its taste intensifies, Once a package has been opened and oxygen comes into contact and it loses moisture with the myoglobin, the tissue and shrinks. So becomes bright red. brown meat may not be spoiled— 7 HOURS use your senses of If continuously touch and smell exposed to oxygen, meat gradually 7hr to judge whether darkens. it is okay to eat COLOR ENHANCER (see left). CARBON MONOXIDE I S S O METIMES A DDED TO VACUUM PACKS— I T After a week, meat turns a RE A CTS WITH MYOGLOBIN, deeper red as the oxygen TURNING MEAT reacts with the myoglobin. RED. 9 DAYS Myoglobin browns the How oxygen transforms longer it is exposed to oxygen, giving the meat 9d the color of meat a red-brown color. When exposed to oxygen, myoglobin in the muscles turns red and then brown. When butchers dry-age meat, the surface When meat is dry-aged in gradually darkens, while enzymes temperature-controlled conditions, in the meat slowly soften the it gradually darkens and may texture and enhance the flavor. start to gray around the edges. 034 // 035 The Science of Meat and Poultry Why do different meats LOOK AND TASTE SO DIFFERENT? Variations in meat color between animals make a difference in how each meat is best cooked. The color of meat is related to the levels of a red-colored, muscles, like those in a leg, are for endurance and need a oxygen-supplying protein, myoglobin, in an animal’s muscles. steady oxygen supply, so have more myoglobin. Whiter “fast- The higher the levels of myoglobin, the darker and redder the twitch” muscles, for short bursts of energy, need less oxygen, meat, while lower levels of myoglobin result in paler meat. such as chicken breast muscles, designed for flapping wings. Some animals have varying levels of myoglobin in different Proportions of light and dark meat affect flavor and texture. muscles, depending on how that muscle is used, so an animal Darker, well-exercised muscles tend to have more protein, can have both light and dark areas of meat. Dark “slow-twitch” fat droplets, iron, and flavor-generating enzymes. H O W D IF F ER ENT-CO L ORED MEATS COMPA RE 1.3 Myoglobin levels in different animals 1.2 This chart compares myoglobin levels in different animals and explains how these levels affect the meat, with higher levels intensifying flavor and 1.1 lower levels creating a blander-tasting meat. 1.0 0.9 Average percentage of myoglobin in different meats 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.05% Myoglobin 0.2% Myoglobin 0.3% Myoglobin 0.6% Myoglobin Mea—Pinkish-white Meat—Reddish-pink Meat—Reddish-pink Meat—Reddish-pink 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 CHICKEN PORK DUCK LAMB 0.0 How much myoglobin? How much myoglobin? How much myoglobin? How much myoglobin? Chicken has less than 0.05% Pork has an average of Duck has an average of 0.3% Lamb has an average of 0.6%. and has a pinkish-white meat. 0.2% and the meat is a and its meat tends to be darker The meat is reddish-pink. reddish-pink color. than chicken and poultry. How do muscles comapre? How do muscles The slow-twitch leg muscles How do muscles compare? How do muscles compare? compare? power daily walking, so the Loin meat on the back is both Constantly on the move, ducks Cuts from the top of the leg, flesh on the leg is darker light and dark, while the leg have mostly dark, fatty muscle such as lamb chump, have than the breast. muscle is darker. for stamina. slow-twitch endurance muscles, so the meat is a Why does it matter? Why does it matter? Why does it matter? darker red here. The darker leg meat has more This pale, leaner meat The fat conveys and myoglobin, flavor-generating requires some flavoring. intensifies flavors, so the meat Why does it matter? enzymes, iron, and fat than the needs little flavoring. The relatively high levels less-used breast muscle. Light of myoglobin and fat give meat needs extra flavoring. juiciness and flavor, so only simple flavorings are needed.  Is It Better to Choose Organic Meat? Is it better to choose ORGANIC MEAT? Organic meat is sold as a tastier, healthier, and more ethical alternative, but what are the facts? A QUESTION OF AGE VISIBLE MYOGLOBIN AS ANIMA LS G RO W OLDER, RED LI QU I D P OOLI NG AT MYOG LO BIN L EV ELS THE BOTTOM OF A PACKAGE Science shows us that animals that have had enough I NCREA SE AS MUS C LES OF M EAT I S N'T BLO O D, exercise, have been well fed, and have been spared undue STRENG TH EN AN D FAT BU T A M I X OF M YOGL O B IN stress produce meat that has lots of well-textured muscle INCR EASES, ADD I NG AND WATER. TO FL AVOR. and flavorsome fat. Organic-status meat should help guarantee all of these things; however, several other factors come into play (see box below) that mean it’s important to check the provenance of your meat. What we know about organic meat Buying organic status means you can be satisfied that a key set of standards has been met in rearing an animal. Organically reared animals have been well looked after, with outdoor access and a stress-free existence, so they tend to be healthier overall and have good-quality meat. Animals are raised on organic land and eat organic feed; however, this has little bearing on the quality of meat. 0.8% Myoglobin 1.4% Myoglobin Animals reared organically aren’t given antibiotics or