The Psychology of Adjustment PDF

**The Psychology of Adjustment** **What is adjustment?** Adjustment refers to any event or non-event that results in changed relationships, routines, assumptions, identity and roles. (Schlossberg, 1994) Feldman defines adjustment as 'efforts people make to meet the demands and challenges placed o...

**The Psychology of Adjustment** **What is adjustment?** Adjustment refers to any event or non-event that results in changed relationships, routines, assumptions, identity and roles. (Schlossberg, 1994) Feldman defines adjustment as 'efforts people make to meet the demands and challenges placed on them by the world.' In scientific terms, adjustment is the behavioural process by which humans/animals maintain an equilibrium among their various need or between their needs and the obstacles of their environments. Adjustment is the before, the after and the during. **3 types of transitions according to Schlossberg** - **Anticipated transitions** - Predictable transitions such as marriage, graduation - **Unanticipated transitions** - Sudden events like death, getting fired - **Non-events** - Transitions we expect yet fail to materialise like marriage that never happened, driver's license **Most people are unaware of the process of transitioning. They occur multiple times in a lifetime.** **WHO definition of Quality of Life** QOL is an **individual's perception of their position in life** in the context of **the culture and value systems** in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns. Successful adjustment is crucial to having a high quality of life. Those who are unable to adjust well are more likely to experience feelings of - Anxiety - Depression - Feelings of hopelessness - Anhedonia - Difficulty concentrating - Sleeping problems - Reckless behaviour These are the domains that pertain to QOL, according to the WHO: **The 4 S's of coping with a transition** **Situation** - Trigger - Timing - Role change - Duration - Concurrent stress - Who is responsible **Self** - Personal or demographic - Age, sex, gender, culture - Psychological - Optimism, spiritual outlook, resilience **Support** - Social networks - Intimates, Family, Friend, Institutions or communities **Strategies** - To cope - Modify, control meaning, manage stress **Domain 1: Physical** 1. Pain and discomfort 2. Energy and fatigue 3. Sexual activity 4. Sleep and rest **Domain II: Psychological** 5. Emotions 6. Thinking, learning, memory and concentration 7. Self-esteem 8. Bodily image and appearance **Domain III: Level of independence** 9. Mobility 10. Activities of daily living 11. Dependence on medicinal substances and medical aids 12. Dependence on nonmedical substances (so drugs, cigs, alcohol etc...) 13. Communication capacity 14. Work capacity **Domain IV: Social Relationships** 15. Personal relationships 16. Social support 17. Activities as provider/supporter **Domain V: Environment** 18. Freedom, physical safety and security 19. Home environment 20. Work satisfaction 21. Financial resources 22. Health and social care 23. Opportunities and participations 24. Physical environment (pollution, noise, traffic, climate) **Domain VI: Spirituality** 25. Religion 26. Personal beliefs that play a part in coping and resilience **Personal Growth** This involves **mental, physical, social, emotional and spiritual** growth which allows a person to live productive and satisfying life within the customs of their society. This may be achieved by - Raising **level of self-awareness and understanding** of other people - **Raising the level** of **one's personal ideals and aspirations** - Acquiring more **positive attitudes towards oneself, other people and life** - Acquiring **higher psychological values** **that support and enrich human relationships**. - Developing one's individuality Personal growth may be achieved through the process of adjustment. **Stages of Transition (Williams, 1999)** 1. First shock: reaction depends on whether the event was good or bad 2. Provisional adjustment: this usually lasts up to 3 to 4 months, so it is temporary 3. Inner contradictions: a contradiction between the old view of the world and the new situation 4. Inner crisis: Stress, anxiety, or contradictions which may affect deeply held beliefs 5. Re-construction and recovery **The Cycle of Adjustment** - Individuals differ in resilience to transitions - Transitions often reach a crisis about 6 months after the event - The circumstances may lead to several different outcomes - They may cause a transition for others - It involves situational and intrapersonal learning and also unlearning - Behavioural and cognitive restructuring which occur at different phases of the cycle. ***An Extended Crisis*** may develop if an individual is unable to come to terms with a trauma or the change that has occurred. This can last for months or years. It can manifest in **physical or mental difficulties.** **Breaking out of Transition Crisis** The mind is reconstructing itself to adapt to a new reality of life. This is referred to ***Cognitive Restructuring**. **Cognitive Dissonance*** defence like denial actually inhibit the person form breaking out of their crisis. The break out can happen spontaneously and rapidly which is usually triggered by a defining moment or catharsis (process of releasing, and thereby providing relief from, strong or repressed emotions). The cognitive restructuring occurs a few weeks after the breaking out period. It liberates newfound meaning and confidence and optimism. **Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages** Personality develops through 8 stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. Each stage is characterised by a psychosocial crisis that could positively or negatively affect development. Successful completion of each stage in the acquisition of virtues. These serve as strengths that the ego can use to resolve crises. The outcome of a stage is not permanent and can be modified by later experience. **Infancy** Hope Trust vs Mistrust Can I trust the world? ---------------------- ------------ ---------------------------- -------------------------------------------------- **Toddlerhood** Will Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt Is it okay to be me? **Early Childhood** Purpose Initiative vs. Guilt Is it ok for me to move, do, act? **Middle Childhood** Competence Industry vs Inferiority Can I make it in the world of people and things? **Adolescence** Fidelity Identity vs Role Confusion Who am I? Who can I be? **Early Adulthood** Love Intimacy vs isolation Can I love? **Middle Adulthood** Care Generativity vs Stagnation Can I make my life count? **Late Adulthood** Wisdom Ego Integrity vs Despair Is it okay to have been me? **Application to Transition** Ego qualities acquire in earlier stage of this theory can support one in navigating transitions and they may also be challenged by a transition. Features of Emerging Adulthood - Age of identity explorations and experimentation - Age of instability- moving out, moving abroad, exploring love relationships - Self-focused age- focusing on skills and knowledge towards independence - Age of possibilities - Age of feeling-in-between Emerging adults see themselves as involved in the process of exploring, deciding upon the commitments in work and love that they will carry into the future. Previous developmental attainments of, or difficulties with, **hope, willpower, purpose, and competence** have brought them to their present moment. ***Stress and Coping*** **Stress** features any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one's well-being and thereby tax one's coping abilities. The **Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984)** defines stress as exposure to stimuli that are appraised as highly challenging, uncontrollable and overwhelming, and exceed an individual's capacity to cope. **Acute stressors** are events that have a relatively short duration while **Chronic stressors** are events that have a relatively long duration and no readily apparent time limit. **Biological factors:** - Genetics, neurophysiology and physical health conditions influence stress reactivity. **Psychological factors:** - Personality traits, cognitive patterns and emotional responses also play a role. **Social factors** - Environmental influences such as social support, cultural norms and relationships, interact with personality traits and biological factors to play a part in how stress is perceived and dealt with. **The General Adaptation Syndrome** A pattern of responses to stress that consists of 3 stages: 1. **Alarm stage**: prepares the body to fight or flee 2. **Resistance:** the defences prepare for a longer, sustained attack against the stressor 3. **Exhaustion:** physiological and immune systems failures Our stress response system defends, then fatigues. Stress lies in the eye of the beholder. Therefore, the appraisal of stress is subjective. **Primary appraisal**: an initial evaluation of whether an event is 1. Irrelevant to you 2. Relevant, but not threatening or 3. Relevant and threatening or stressful When an event is deemed as stressful, you are likely to make a **Secondary appraisal** which is an evaluation of your: 1. Coping resources and 2. Options for dealing with the stress (what can I do about this situation) **Common coping patterns of lower value:** - Isolating - Learned helplessness (losing self-efficacy or giving up) - Snapping at others - Blaming (locus of control) - Indulging - Rebellion - Prolonged defensive coping - For ex: denial, regression, displacement, projection, intellectualisation, repression, rationalisation ***Two major coping strategies*** - **Emotion-focused coping**: managing emotional reactions to the problem - **Problem-focused coping:** taking direct steps to confront or minimise a stressor People high in **hardiness** report fewer negative responses to stressful events ***Personality Types:*** **Type A:** ambitious, hard-giving, and go-getting. People with this personality type tend to be perfectionists who put themselves under a great deal of stress. **Type B:** Low-stress and easy going. They tend to be laid back and adaptable **Type C:** Highly conscientious. Like Type A\'s, they are perfectionists who want everything to be just so - but they also struggle to reveal emotions, both positive and negative. **Type D:** Tendency to get distressed. They often feel worried, sad, and low in confidence The five-factor model splits personality into 5 broad traits that an individual can rate higher or lower on compared to other people, based on the extent to which the person exhibits them. - **Neuroticism:** higher sensitivity, increased vigilance, can be seen as risk factor for emotional distress - **Extraversion**: related to social support, coping strategies, and overall well-being - **Openness and Agreeableness:** impact on health via social relationships, stress buffering and creativity in problem-solving. - **Conscientiousness:** associated with healthier behaviours, better adherence to medical advice, and longevity (Costa and McCrae) ***Social Cognition*** Social cognition refers to the different psychological processes that influence how people process, interpret, and respond to social signals. They allow people to understand behaviour and respond in ways that are appropriate and beneficial. As we interact with our world, we are both spectators and actors, doing and perceiving, acting and thinking. Through social cognition we: - perceive the world - Make sense of it and our own behaviour - Form and change attitudes The **[Fundamental Attribution Error]** is the tendency to overemphasise personality traits and underemphasise situational factors when explaining others' behaviours. The **[Actor-Observer Bias]** is the tendency for individuals to attribute their own behaviour to situational factors while attributing others' behaviour to internal dispositional factors. A **[schema]** is a cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret information. It is a pattern of thinking that helps us interpret the world around us. They are short cuts to let our cognitive abilities focus on higher-order tasks or seek novel information They guide us on how to behave in a situation. However, they may become a source of mistakes in complex environments. - How we expect others to behave in a situation Types of Schemas - Person schemas - Social schemas - Self-schemas - Event schemas **Stereotypes** These are '... a fixed, automatic, over generalised belief about a particular group or class of people" (Cardwell, 1996) **Core Schemas** are beneficial as they are encoded shortcuts which make life less taxing, but it could also be problematic. This is because we make snap decisions based on what we think we know which may not always be right. Our earliest experiences with our parents, immediate family, school and social environment form our core schemas. These schemas become more nuanced and complex. Schemas influence what we pay attention to and once a schema is in place, we subconsciously pay attention to information that confirms it, while ignoring information countering it. As we grow older, our schemas become more entrenched in our psyche and changing them gets harder. Especially when they are formed under duress or during emotionally charged situations. The way our basic emotional needs are met across our lifespan affects our core schemas and form **coping styles**. **Coping Styles** These coping styles can reinforce schemas. The coping style may feed back into and strengthen the schema, creating a self-reinforcing loop. This cycle makes it harder for the person to break away from their belief and recognise that it's not an inevitable truth but rather a schema that can be challenged and modified. ***Schema Coping Modes:*** 1. **Child modes:** characterised by childlike feelings and behaviours like over-reacting, attention-seeking, approval seeking 2. **Dysfunctional coping modes:** used to prevent emotional distress but end up reinforcing the schema (for ex: under reacting and repression of one's needs) 3. **Dysfunctional parent modes:** internalisation of critical, demanding or harsh parental voices for ex: not protesting if treated unfairly 4. **Healthy Adult mode:** healthy, functional self. This mode can help regulate the other modes by setting limits and countering the effects of other modes. Schemas may change through: - ***Assimilation:*** new information is incorporated into pre-existing schemas - ***Accommodation:*** existing schemas might be altered, or new schemas might be formed as a person learns new information and has new experiences. ***[Desire, Love and Attachment]*** Desires motivate people to attend to fundamental wants and need (Hoffman & Nordgren). This is generally fuelled by biological and evolutionary factors, promoting reproduction and ensuring the continuation of the species. Characteristics of **desire:** - **Short-lived**: desire can be intense but does not necessarily last long. - **Primarily physical**: it focuses on physical attraction and sexual chemistry rather than emotional and psychological connection. - **Instinctual**: desire is often immediate and can arise independently of deeper emotional bonds **Love** Love is a more complex emotional state. - It features pleasurable sensations in the presence of the loved one. - There is a devotion to their well-being and a sensitivity to their reactions. - It is a powerful bond that connects individuals on an emotional, physical and spiritual level - It goes beyond physical attraction and involves emotional closeness, trust, and empathy - It more stable and enduring than desire. - It develops over time and strengthens with shared experiences and mutual support - It is multi-faceted as it includes different dimensions - ***Romantic love***: passion and intimacy - ***Companionate love:*** intimacy and commitment - ***Compassionate love:*** a selfless concern for a partner's well-being **Attachment** Attachment is a deep, enduring emotional bond formed between individuals often involving a sense of safety and security. Unlike desire or some types of love, attachment is less about excitement and more about a sense of comfort and love. **Developmental roots:** attachment patterns develop in early childhood based on experiences with caregivers which end up influencing adult relationships and the way individuals form bonds. **Dependence and interdependence:** in securely attached relationships, partners rely on each other for emotional support and comfort, promoting a healthy interdependence that helps them face challenges together. [Love, Desire and Attachment are biologically driven:] Hormones: ***Oxytocin, Vasopressin, Testosterone, Oestrogen*** Neurochemicals: ***Dopamine, Norepinephrine and Serotonin*** Neuro Circuit: ***Reward Pathway, ANS and Striatum*** **Attraction** Initial attraction is influenced by - Social and cultural norms and standards - Social cognition - Physical attractiveness - Processes of interpersonal exchange - Similarity (in attitude) - Shared activities - Reciprocal liking - Heightened emotional arousal and context ***Robert Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love*** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Intimacy | - It involves feelings of | | | closeness, connectedness, and | | | bondedness in a relationship. | | | | | | - It represents the emotional | | | aspect of love- feeling | | | comfortable, supported and | | | emotionally attached to | | | someone. | | | | | | - This is what usually fosters | | | deep friendship and mutual | | | care | +===================================+===================================+ | Passion | - Physical attraction, romance, | | | sexual desire | | | | | | - Hot component of love | | | characterized by physical | | | arousal and a longing to be | | | close to someone. | | | | | | - Can be intense and | | | unpredictable | | | | | | - Drives infatuation and | | | physical intimacy | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Commitment | - Represents the decision to | | | maintain a long-term | | | relationship. | | | | | | - The cognitive side of love, | | | involving a choice to stay | | | committed, even when passion | | | or intimacy might fluctuate | | | | | | - Commitment helps stabilize | | | the relationship over time | | | and ensures a sense of | | | responsibility and loyalty | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **[The Growth of a Relationship]** 1. ***Self-disclosure:*** revealing personal information about oneself to another person. This deepens and increase over time. 2. ***Trust:*** when we trust someone, we believe that person is honest and that their intentions are positive. We are more likely to self-disclose when we trust the person. Reliability is important. 3. ***Interdependence:*** partners recognize and value the importance of the emotional bond they share while maintaining a solid sense of self within the relationship dynamic. **Empathy** Mirror neurons contribute to empathy by helping us resonate with others\' emotions and experiences. They combine with other biological systems, such as the hormone oxytocin, which can regulate or even enhance empathic processes. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | ***Secure Attachment*** | ***Avoidant*** | | | | | - Warm & Caring | - Emotionally distant | | | | | - Trusting and forgiving | - Prefers individuality | | | | | - Appropriate conflict | - Doesn't depend on partner | | | | | - Manages emotion well | - Avoids conflict | | | | | - Honest and open | - logical | +===================================+===================================+ | ***Anxious*** | Disorganized | | | | | - insecure | - emotions are messy | | | | | - fear of partner leaving | - unresolved trauma resurfaces | | | often | | - lacks personal boundaries | | | | - often angered | | - always shifting moods | | | | - aggressive behavior | | - highly sensitive | | | | - lacks empathy | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ Attachment styles - affects how we deal with closeness and emotional intimacy in romantic relationships - influences how we communicate needs and understand the emotions and needs of others - affects how we handle conflict - influences the expectations we place on partners and the relationship. ***Interdependency:*** mutual support yet retaining individuality and personal goals. You enjoy attachment yet if other person goes away, you are able to self-regulate ***Codependency:*** losing sight of your own needs, goals, and even identity, focusing primarily on fulfilling your partner's need or gaining their approval. **Knapp's Relationship Model** **Coming together** 1. bonding 2. integrating 3. intensifying 4. experimenting 5. initiating **Coming Apart** 1. differentiating 2. circumscribing 3. stagnating 4. avoiding 5. terminating **Careers and Work** **Holland's Trait Measurement and Matching Tool** According to Holland (1996), people flourish when their personality type is matched with an environment congruent with their abilities, interests and self-beliefs. A diagram of different people Description automatically generated A critical psychology approach to adjusting to work is the ***adjust-challenge*** dilemma which refers to the struggle to adjust to the world of work while challenging it at the same time. What to challenge: - implication for unfair working conditions - high job demands - role ambiguity - high levels of control - dealing with unfair wages - dealing with harassment - dealing with unfair opportunities based in gender, class, cultural discrimination There are four other configurations of this dilemma - adjust and challenge the system - adjust but do not challenge - challenge but do not adjust - neither adjust nor challenge **Modes of response:** **Self-response -Self Focus** - ***Avoidance/denial***: most frequently used, yet least effective for ending harassment - avoiding the harasser - altering the job situation by transferring or quitting - going along with the behavior - ignoring the behaviors - treating it as a joke - blaming self **Supported Response- Self Focus** - ***Social Coping***: not effective for ending harassment but may assist in coping with negative consequences resulting from harassment. - Bringing along a friend when harasser is present - Discussing the situation with sympathetic other - Seeking medical or emotional counselling **Self Response- Initiator focus** - ***Confrontation/Negotiation:*** not frequently used, but very effective for ending harassment - Asking or telling the harasser to stop - Threatening the harasser - Disciplining the harasser (if in a position to do so) **Supported response- Initiator Focus** - ***Advocacy Seeking:*** not frequently used, but very effective for ending harassment - Reporting the behaviour to a supervisor, other internal official body or outside agency - Asking another person to intervene - Seeking legal remedies through the court system Critical psychology aims to challenge taken-for-granted notions of life satisfaction, especially when personal fulfilment entails participation in systems of injustice The key perspective in career theories remains the notion that people have a variety of career choices that can best be realized through understanding their personalities, interests, values, and abilities. **Gender and Sexuality** The gender and sexuality framework is an analytical lens that emphasizes the dynamic and intersecting ways gender and sexuality influence individual experiences, societal structures and power relations. Sexual Orientation: - A person's physical, romantic and/or sexual attraction, or the lack of it, to other people - For some it is fluid and for other it is innate and does not change - Sexual attraction, sexual behaviors, and sexual identity Gender Identity: - A person's individual experience of gender which may or may not correspond with the sex assigned at birth - Includes personal sense of the body - Is a spectrum so it is not linked w a single gender Gender Expression - The way in which a person outwardly presents their gender identity ***DSM-I 1952 Sociopathic Personality Disturbance*** - It Moves away from looking at homosexuality as a moral sin to understanding health disparities faced by persons from sexual minority groups. ***DSM-II 1968: Sexual Orientation Disturbance:*** - The new diagnosis served the purpose of legitimizing the practice of sexual conversion therapies (and presumably justified insurance reimbursement for those interventions) ***DSM-III 1980: Ego Dystonic Homosexuality*** - All kinds of identity disturbances could be considered psychiatric disorder ***DSM-III TR 1987: Sexual Disorder Not Otherwise Specified*** - This de-emphasis on homosexuality as a psychiatric disorder would allow for its eventual removed from DSM-V - Highlights effect of cultural impact ***DSM-IV 1994: Gender Identity Disorder*** - It had different criteria sets for children versus adolescents and adults ***DSM-V 2013: Gender Dysphoria*** - Still a pathology - Emphasis on distress with identity **Social Model** A critical social approach focuses on the ways in which differences are produced in a social context and as a result of social processes. Those who adapt a more social model regard difference as a process by which people are differentiated or constructed as different Foucault - The ways in which people are categorized tends to reflect the interests of those doing the categorizing, who usually have the greater power. - So attributing fixed differences to people is not a neutral process but one that both reflect and reproduces inequalities of power and status. ***[When Adjustment Fails]*** When people act in response to something, their action is geared towards a specific goal. This goal may be trying to make something stop or get something to start. With **maladaptive behaviors**, the person is directed towards their goal, but not in a healthy way. However, since they are still reinforcing, maladaptive patterns become **habitual,** not just in our actions but also patterns of feeling, thinking and relating to others. Adjustment disorders describe maladaptive emotional and behavioral responses to an identifiable psychosocial stressor, that is experienced at a level which is deemed disproportionate to the severity or intensity of the stressor. The DSM lists adjustment disorders in the category **of trauma and stress-related disorders**, a group of conditions for which one of the explicit criteria is exposure to traumatic/stressful event A. Development of emotional or behavioral symptoms in response to an identifiable stressor occurring within **3 months of the onset** of the stressor/s B. Marked distress which is out of proportion and significant impairment in social, occupational or other areas of functioning C. Do not persist for more than 6 months *[Specify whether:]* - With depressed mood - With anxiety - With mixed anxiety and depressed mood - With disturbance of conduct - With mixed disturbance of emotions and conduct - Unspecified Differential diagnosis of the disorder or problem; that is, what other disorders or problems may account for some or all to the symptoms or features. PTSD is frequently co-morbid woth other psychiatric disorders including: - Anxiety disorders - Acute stress disorder - OCD - Adjustment disorder - Depressive disorders - Substance abuse disorders Adjustment disorder and PTSD have similar symptoms. However, the ones of adjustment disorders are not severe enough to meet those of PTSD. Adj. disorder resolve within 6 months while PTSD can last for months or even years. Psychological Vulnerabilities - Weak ego strength/sense of belonging - Decreased sense of agency, low self-efficacy, learned helplessness - Early adverse childhood exp that lead to a cognitive style that processes events as being out of one's control - Maladaptive coping schemas **Biological Understanding**: structural or functional patterns of brain functioning, genetic predispositions **Humanistic Understanding**: Lack of positive regard interfering with a person's path of self-actualization **Psychodynamic Understanding:** Unconscious unresolved conflicts in early childhood preventing the id, ego and super ego from maturing properly **Cognitive-behavioral Understanding**: Dysfunctional thinking and ineffective or maladaptive coping styles Thamas Szasz believes that mental illnesses do not exist, he did not deny that humans have difficulties, but he preferred to conceptualize them not as diseases but as 'problems in living'. He calls attention to the political nature of psychiatric diagnosis