Psychodynamic Theory Notes PDF

[ **The Psychodynamic Theory**] **Introduction** **Difference between psychoanalytic theory and psychodynamic theory:** **Psychoanalytic theory**: Sigmund Freud - Early *childhood experiences* influence behaviour throughout all our life. (1896) Analysing childhood **Psychodynamic theory:** Focu...

[ **The Psychodynamic Theory**] **Introduction** **Difference between psychoanalytic theory and psychodynamic theory:** **Psychoanalytic theory**: Sigmund Freud - Early *childhood experiences* influence behaviour throughout all our life. (1896) Analysing childhood **Psychodynamic theory:** Focuses on resolving a *patient's conflicted conscious/unconscious feelings.* **Neo-Freudians**: Psychologists who modified Freud's psychoanalytic theory to include *relational, social, and cultural aspects. Such as Alfred Adler and Carl Jung* ***The Psychodynamic Perspective: A Focus on the Inner Person*** **Freud and Psychoanalysis.** **Structural Theory of Personality/Self.** **The Topographical Theory of Personality** **Unconscious.** **Defence Mechanisms.** **Theory of Psychosexual Development.\ ** ***The structure (sub-divisions) of personality*** Two ways of looking at what personality is made up of: **Structural Theory**: ID, EGO, SUPEREGO. ICEBERG. **Topographical Theory**: Conscious, Pre-conscious, Unconscious. **PERSONALITY STRUCTURE** **The ID -- EGO -- SUPEREGO** (Structural Theory) and the Conscious -- Preconscious -- Unconscious (Topographical Theory) *coexist* within the structure of our personality. S -- superego **PERSONALITY STRUCTURE** **ID**: Driven by instinct, pleasure. **EGO:** Controls and reasons. **SUPEREGO:** Driven by right and wrong. All of us have all 3 but to different degrees. ID -- EGO -- SUPEREGO A CONSTANT CONFLICT !! The conflict is an inner one !! **The Structure of the Tripartite Personality\ ** EGO & SUPEREGO steal power from ID. **INSTINCTS** An instinct has 4 qualities: (Sandwiches are obviously important) **A Source.** **An Aim.** **An Object.** **An Impetus. (THE ENERGY/ FORCE)** The aim is **tension reduction & regression** to a calm state. **2 TYPES OF INSTINCTS** How do we channel the instinct to *die*? Reflected in aggressive, reckless, and life-threatening behaviours including self-destructive actions. Examples: Violent and aggressive acts against others. Acceptable experiences (through the EGO). Inwardly (less), towards ourselves. It can be channelled in direct or vicarious ways. **In Freudian theory, Eros and Thanatos represent two fundamental drives that influence human behaviour (the 2 instincts): \"Eager Life Thrives; Terrible Death Looms.\"** **Eros (Life Drive):** Represents creativity, love, survival, and procreation. Focuses on sustaining life, promoting pleasure, and connecting with others. **Thanatos (Death Drive):** Represents aggression, destruction, and the instinct toward death or returning to an *inorganic state*. Drives self-destructive or harmful behaviours, often manifesting as aggression or risky actions. **Socially acceptable ways of satisfying LIBIDO (The libido is the psychic drive or energy, usually conceived of as *sexual* in nature, but sometimes conceived of as including other forms of *desire*)** Steady relationships and marriage. Art. Cinema and TV. **More about ID** AIM: No tension by satisfying instinctual needs. Tension = Pain (caused by ungratified drives). Pleasure = Satisfying instinctual needs. ID will do anything to avoid pain and get pleasure. **More about ID** NO RULES. NO LOGIC/REASON. NOT MORAL. NOT EVALUATIVE/NO CONCEPT OF DANGER/CONSEQUENCES. CHAOTIC. NO SENSE OF TIME AND SPACE. **How does the ID achieve satisfaction?** - **Primary Process (Cathecting)** - Attaching *ID energy to an outside object* as a means of relieving tension. Examples: attaching sentimental value to a family heirloom ID does not distinguish between fantasy and reality. Process of choosing a likely object in the environment and attaching psychic energy to it. Freud conceives of psychic functioning as *the flow of this energy* along paths shaped by cathexis (attachment) and anti-cathexis (aversion). Libido seeks release through pleasure; when blocked this leads to *neurotic symptoms*. - **Reflex Action -** Spontaneous, uninhibited response. Acting without thinking. Acting out: yelling, losing control, getting sexually aroused, kicking, making a fist. **EGO** 'The Director.' Begins as a guide to the ID. Later, when the SUPEREGO develops, it mediates between the two. Freud used the term **ego strength** to refer to the *ego\'s ability to function* despite these dueling forces **A strong vs weak Ego** **Cathexis --** The process of allocation of mental or emotional energy to a person, object, or idea**.** **What the EGO does\...** Satisfies the ID in *socially acceptable ways* (and avoids guilt, anxiety, and punishment from the SUPEREGO). Applies *defence mechanisms* to reduce anxiety. Uses *reasoning*. **How?** The Ego STEALS energy from the ID. - **REALITY TESTING** - It assesses external situations to determine *what is achievable and appropriate*, aligning desires with reality. It evaluates the feasibility of the desire in the current moment (\"I can't just take the cake because it's against societal rules\"). - **REALITY PRINCIPLE --** The EGO *delays immediate gratification* from the ID\'s impulses, prioritizing *long-term benefits and logical outcomes*. It balances the id, superego and the reality context. ("I can study for two hours and then go to sleep just in time for the exam") This emphasises patience. - **SECONDARY PROCESS** - The EGO employs *rational thinking and problem-solving* to satisfy the ID's drives in a manner consistent with reality and social norms. It devises a plan to satisfy the desire in a rational, future-oriented, and socially acceptable way (\"I'll buy the cake or make one later\"). Planner -- the smart way. **SECONDARY PROCESS** DRIVE (like with the primary process of the ID) → TENSION (like with the primary process of ID) → CATHEXIS (like in the primary process of ID -- DREAMING ABOUT OBJECT) → REALITY TESTING → (Weakens Cathexis Bond through IDENTIFICATION -- an object in reality that matches the fantasized object) → GRATIFICATION or POSTPONEMENT OR PARTIAL GRATIFICATION. **Identification** - Identification is a psychological process in which a person identifies with the characteristics or properties of another person or group. Example: A teenager starts dressing and speaking like their favourite celebrity to feel connected and emulate their style. **Wish fulfilment** - the satisfaction of a desire through an involuntary thought process. Example: After longing for a promotion, a person dreams about being the boss at their workplace. **Gratification** - the experience of satisfaction or pleasure that arises when a need, desire, or goal is fulfilled. In relation to motivation and behaviour. Example: A runner feels immense joy and satisfaction after completing their first marathon. Goal achieved = pleasurable sensations **Postponement** - The EGO delays fulfilling a desire until it can be *achieved in an appropriate or realistic way*. Example: Waiting to eat until after work instead of snacking during a meeting. **Partial Gratification:** The EGO provides a smaller or incomplete satisfaction of the desire to reduce tension without violating rules or practical constraints. Example: Satisfying hunger with a small snack while waiting for dinner. This approach helps balance impulsive drives *with long-term goals* and *societal expectations*. Example: You are in a lecture and feel hungry (ID -- drive). You imagine something delicious you like eating (wish-fulfilment). EGO intervenes and you think about where you can buy that food from after the lecture (Identification of object in reality). Lecture ends, and you go buy the food. Because ID is satisfied, it is more likely to pass on more energy to the EGO (to satisfy it). EGO uses that energy not only to satisfy the ID but also to forward its aims, like thinking, having ideas, and planning (following the lecture). **ID & EGO** Analogy from New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis, 1932. (Horse and horse rider) **SUPEREGO** Formed around **age 4--7.** At first, through identification with powerful *parent* (power pleases the ID). Later, through our own *rules and ideals*. **Where does its energy come from?** SUPEREGO as adults\... Perfection. Status. Social Approval. Respect. Starts by satisfying the ID but later becomes a source of pain because of the way it drives the person with feelings of guilt and inadequacy. **2 Aspects of the SUPEREGO/ The conscience** **INTERNAL POLICEMAN:** *Prohibitions* - Enforces *moral rules and discourages unacceptable behaviour* using guilt and shame. Acts as an inner critic, ensuring actions align with ethical or societal norms. **EGO IDEAL**: *From parental ideals* - Represents aspirations and values inspired *by parental and societal expectations*. Encourages striving for self-improvement, success, and perfection. The superego includes both a *punishing and a rewarding function*. The *conscience*, which includes ideas about which behaviours and thoughts are improper, unacceptable, and wrong, carries out the punishing function. **More about SUPEREGO\...** Uses *guilt* and punishment to gain power and control over the personality. Makes us follow it to avoid feeling bad or hating ourselves. Examples: "That's right, go out. It's Saturday night after all. Your poor mother will stay home all alone." → You stay in because you cannot live with the guilt. **Characteristics of a Harsh SUPEREGO\...** Guilt over standing up to parents. Persons with a deep sense of duty towards parents (parents are always right, even when abusive). Persons who cannot say \"no.\" Workaholics: hungry SUPEREGOS needing to do the right thing. *Excessive anxiety* because the person cannot resolve conflict due to a very strong SUPEREGO. Depression or heart palpitations. But it's not always negative\... **The SUPEREGO (when mediated by EGO):** Helps you to study and achieve. Helps you to have meaningful, lasting relationships. Helps you to be a good parent. Helps you to be a contributing member of society. **3 Functions of the SUPEREGO** - *Inhibit ID* (All work and no play). - *Force EGO to act morally*, not rationally (scrupulous persons). - Force a person toward absolute *perfection* (perfectionism). **More about SUPEREGO** A very weak SUPEREGO = *psychopathic personality*. Type of parenting influences the strength of personality aspects: Very strict parenting → strong SUPEREGO. Very lax, undisciplined parenting → strong ID. In both cases, the EGO has to struggle to gain control (an important task of early adulthood). Parenting that cuts down and erodes faith in self creates a weak EGO---leaving the individual gullible and open to abuse. ***A healthy EGO* is very important for psychological health.** Has to be strong enough to get energy from the ID. Has to exert energy successfully against the excesses of the SUPEREGO (or the person becomes very inhibited, over-controlled, and feels like a failure). Strong enough to engage in social life, not afraid to try new and challenging things. According to Freud, *a healthy person is one who can **LOVE AND WORK*** (able to move out of self-absorption and connect with others and be productive). **Early studies of hysteria:** Freud argued that hysteria was caused neither by a physiological disorder of the female sexual organs nor mere play-acting; hysteria was not uniquely female. Hysteria was caused by painful, emotion-charged memories, repressed from consciousness, leading to physical symptoms. Repressed memories were typically of childhood sexual seduction. Freud originally believed these were memories of actual events (trauma theory), but later concluded that they usually recalled forbidden wishes (wish theory). Neuro problems. He published numerous works throughout his career, the most notable being "[The Interpretation of Dreams](https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Freud/Dreams/dreams.pdf)" (1900), "[The Psychopathology of Everyday Life](https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Zied-Ben-Amor-2/post/How_do_you_account_of_the_deja_vu_impression2/attachment/5ff39d32e35e2b0001030d5f/AS%3A976390358851584%401609801010470/download/Psychopathology+everyday+life+Freud.pdf)" (1901), and "[Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality](https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~cavitch/pdf-library/Freud_SE_Three_Essays_complete.pdf)" (1905). **The Topographical theory --** The **Unconscious**, in Freud's view is like a reservoir of thoughts, wishes, feelings, memories, that are *hidden from awareness* because they feel unacceptable. Personality develops from the efforts of our ego, our rational self, to resolve tension Personality -- mediating between super ego and id between our id, based in biological drives, and the superego, society's rules and constraints. The Mind is mostly below the surface of conscious awareness: *it is mostly unconscious* Psychoanalytically-trained psychologists help people in therapy by looking at how *childhood experiences* (especially traumatic ones) are having an impact on the client's current problems and trying to learn more about the *content of their unconscious*. They do this by using the following techniques: **o Free Association** (express whatever comes to mind without censoring) **o Dream Analysis** (actual content and symbolic elements). **o Projective Techniques** (what a person sees in an ambiguous figure reflects his/her personality). **o Analysis of defense mechanisms** **View of human nature** ** ** *Negative and pessimistic* view of human nature: Nearly all of our impulses are *sexual and aggressive* in nature. Because *we cannot accept them in our conscious*, thoughts find their expression in dreams, slips of the tongue that appear as accidents, and even jokes.  Freud's theory is *good at explaining* but not predicting behaviour (which is one of the goals of [science](https://www.simplypsychology.org/steps-of-the-scientific-method.html)). For this reason, Freud's theory is [unfalsifiable](http://karl-popper.html/) -- it can neither be proved true or refuted. For example, the unconscious mind is difficult to test and measure objectively. Overall, Freud's theory is highly unscientific. Despite the scepticism of the unconscious mind, cognitive psychology has identified *unconscious* *processes*, such as *procedural memory* (Tulving, 1972), *automatic processing* (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999; Stroop, 1935), and *social psychology* has shown the importance of [implicit processing](https://www.simplypsychology.org/implicit-bias.html) (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995). Such empirical findings have demonstrated the role of unconscious processes in human behaviour. However, most evidence for Freud's theories is from an *unrepresentative sample*. He mostly studied himself, his patients, and only one child (e.g., [Little Hans](https://www.simplypsychology.org/little-hans.html)). The main problem here is that the case studies are based on studying one person in detail, and regarding Freud, the individuals in question are most often *middle-aged women from Vienna* (i.e., his patients). This makes *generalizations* to the wider population (e.g., the whole world) difficult. However, Freud thought this unimportant, believing in only a qualitative difference between people. Freud may also have shown *research bias* in his interpretations -- he may have only *paid attention to information that supported his theories*, and ignored information and other explanations that did not fit them. However, Fisher & Greenberg (1996) argue that *Freud's theory should be evaluated in terms of specific hypotheses* rather than a whole. They concluded that there is evidence to support Freud's concepts of oral and anal personalities and some aspects of his ideas on depression and paranoia. They found *little evidence of the Oedipal conflict and no support for Freud's views on women's sexuality* and how their development differs from men'. ***Structural Theory of Personality/Self -*** **Note on Freud's Psychoanalytic theory -- the role of childhood and the importance of parenting** **»** Although Freud's psychoanalytic theory places a lot of *importance on nature and human beings' innate instincts*, it also highlights *the importance of the environment (nurture*), particularly the impact of the *relationship with one's parents. ENVIRONMENT IS ALSO IMPORTANT.* » He believed that events that occur in our *childhood*, especially with our parents, and the way we interpret them will have a significant impact on who we become as adults: they form our personality. » Significant experiences and our interpretations of them will be stored in our consciousness. The unconscious is the biggest part of our consciousness which, like a cauldron attempts to relieve that energy when the material inside is 'bubbling up'. This usually leads a person to experience anxiety. Unconscious -- anxiety » According to Freud, everyone's personality is composed of three components: the id, the ego and the superego. These three components are in *constant dynamic relationship*. The id is the part of our personality, driven to satisfy *basic biological drives.* The *sexual or biological energy* resulting from the id is called the **libido**. The more 'gratified' the libido is, the more pleasure the person feels; the more frustrated the libido is, the more tension, the person experiences (Greem, Lewis & Willerton, 2015). The id is driven by the *pleasure principle*. It is *the oldest part of our personality*, with us since birth. The superego develops around the **ages of 4 or 5**. It is like a conscience, making us feel bad when we think of or actually disobey social rules. It develops as a result of rules that parents and significant people teach us, which we later unconsciously adopt as our own. It also predicts a rigid ideal of our 'self' in terms of good behaviour and punishes us with bad thoughts and feelings when we neglect this ideal. It follows the *morality principle*. The ego develops when we are about **2-years old** and we realise that, although we are autonomous, we have to fit in a *social context*. This means that we cannot always get what gives us pleasure. In this way, the ego mediates between the demands of the id and the pressures of external reality (later becoming the superego). It follows the *reality principle*. » Does the ego always manage to strike a balance between the id and the superego? No. Sometimes, the id and superego are too strong for the ego. According to Freud, when this happens, people experience defence mechanisms. Strong id and superego = defence mechanisms » **Defence mechanisms** - unconscious strategies, used *by the ego*, to *defend against the* *anxiety* that someone experiences when the ego does not manage to mediate successfully between the id and the superego. According to Freud, in such cases, the individual's ego develops these strategies that *stop him or her from becoming consciously* *aware of any thoughts or feelings related to the traumatic situati* (Cardwell & Flanagan, 2015). Freud believed that we are anxious about our unacceptable wishes and impulses, and we repress this anxiety with the help of the strategies below. Note: Displacement -- place on something Reaction formation -- kill with kindness **Sublimation** - Channelling unacceptable impulses into *socially acceptable activities*. **More terms:** **Psychic Determinism:** The idea that all thoughts, feelings, and behaviours have an underlying *psychological cause*, often rooted in the unconscious. **Fixation:** Unresolved *conflicts at a psychosexual stage* leading to persistent behaviours or traits associated with that stage. **Freudian Slip:** An unintentional error in speech or action revealing unconscious thoughts or desires. **Dynamic Unconscious:** The part of the unconscious *actively kept hidden through repression*. **Pleasure Principle**: The ID\'s drive to *seek pleasure* and avoid pain. **[The Topographical Theory of Personality]** **Topographical theory:** *Different systems* of the mind. The mind is composed of three mental systems: **Conscious** **Preconscious** **Unconscious** Later incorporated into Freud's **"structural" model of personality** involving the **ID, EGO,** and **SUPEREGO.** **The Conscious Part of the Mind** - The part of the mind that is *aware of itself* -- "I know that I know." - What I am thinking or perceiving at the present moment. **The Pre/Subconscious Part of the Mind** - *What we bring to our attention through effort.* - Examples: Recalling memories, Knowledge and the "*Tip of the Tongue*" phenomenon. **The Unconscious Part of the Mind** - *What the mind does not know that it knows or has experienced*. - What I am not aware of. - Part of the mind that we do not have access to. - Access is difficult and may be incomplete. - We can access it by examining its manifestations. **The Contents of the Unconscious Mind\...** A reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that were: Either *never conscious*. Perceived as too unpleasant or unacceptable. Associated with the *ID.* **What Do We Repress?** Whatever *threatens our sense of security*. Parts of ourselves or experiences that we perceive as disturbing and unpleasant. **What is Repression?** The process of pushing experiences, feelings, or memories into the unconscious mind. *Removing something from conscious awareness* by burying it in the abyss of the unconscious. Example - A woman with a cold and controlling mother: To protect herself from criticism and intrusiveness, she grows to be a violent person. **Repressed Material May Emerge** Circumstances where the *EGO\'s ability to repress material is weakened*. When we *no longer feel threatened by repressed material.* **Repression and Psychologists** Psychologists need to explore their own unconscious and past experiences through: - *Growth psychotherapy.* - *Supervision*. Why? Unconscious thoughts, feelings, and experiences in psychologists can affect *case appraisals and their position with patients.* No one is immune to the effects of the unconscious. **How Do We Access Repressed Material?** **Introspection -** A deep, reflective *exploration of one\'s past* experiences to uncover hidden thoughts. **Free Association -** Speaking freely without censorship to allow locked unconscious material to surface. **Dreams -** Analyzing the *symbolic and latent content* of dreams to reveal repressed desires and conflicts. **Resistance -** Observing *oppositional reactions* or defensiveness when unconscious defenses are challenged. **Parapraxes** - *Interpreting everyday \"slips\" or mistakes*, like Freudian slips, to uncover repressed thoughts. **Projection -** Recognizing how we *attribute our unconscious feelings to others or external objects.* **Dreams -** Freud believed that dreams represented *unconscious desires or fears in disguised form*. By analysing the content of dreams, the therapist can try to understand the *unconscious meaning*. **Manifest Content:** What *appears in the dream*. **Latent Content:** The *hidden meaning* behind the manifest content. Dreams serve as *a wish-fulfilment or satisfaction of the ID.* **Types of Dreams** -- - **Ordinary Dreams** - Everyday dreams that reflect *routine thoughts, feelings, or experiences* without significant emotional intensity. - **Anxiety Dreams** - Dreams involving worry, fear, or tension, often *highlighting unresolved stress or concerns.* - **Recurring Dreams** - Repeated dreams *with similar themes or content*, typically pointing to unresolved issues or persistent thoughts. - **Healing Dreams** - Dreams that provide *emotional or psychological relief*, symbolizing recovery or personal growth. - **Prophetic Dreams** - Dreams perceived as *foretelling future events or outcomes, often interpreted symbolically.* - **Lucid Dreams** - Dreams where the *dreamer is aware they are dreaming* and may even control the dream\'s direction. - **Epic Dreams** - Exceptionally *vivid and profound dreams* that feel transformative or meaningful, often remembered for years. - **Daydreams** - *Conscious, imaginative scenarios experienced while awake,* often reflecting desires or creative thoughts. - **False Awakening Dreams** - Dreams in which the *dreamer believes they have woken up, only to realize they are still dreaming.* - **Nightmares** - Disturbing or *frightening dreams that evoke strong negative emotions* like fear, often waking the dreamer. **5 Psychological Mechanisms Operating in Dreams (\"Cats Dance Daily, Singing Songs.\")** 1. **Condensation** - *Combining multiple ideas, thoughts, or feelings into one object.* Example: A snake in a dream could symbolize various things, such as trouble, death, or change. In most cases, portions of the latent content are omitted, and only fragments appear in the dream. 2. **Displacement (Hidden meaning)** - *Disguises the true meaning of the dream*. Emotional tone or essential aspects of a dream are shifted onto *manifest content* instead of the latent meaning. Example: A monkey in a dream could symbolize an annoying father. 3. **Dramatization (The story)** - *Abstract thoughts and wishes are dramatized and put into a story.* 4. **Symbolization (Pictures into ideas)** - *Latent content is converted into symbols*. Examples: Male genitals: sticks, trees, pens, bananas, pointed objects. Female genitals: hollows, rooms, corridors, empty spaces. Modern *interpretation focuses on subjective meanings.* 5. **Secondary Elaboration (Understanding the dream)** - *Makes the dream coherent and meaningful*. Tries to give a reasonable interpretation to the dream. According to Blum (1969), secondary elaboration reflects the secondary process thinking of the EGO. **Resistances** - A reaction, often oppositional, when unconscious defences are threatened by an external source. Examples: Getting angry when someone points out a shortcoming and becoming defensive instead of acknowledging it. In therapy, clients may resist accepting they have a problem or get angry at the therapist for focusing on certain issues, claiming "that's not the problem." **The Parapraxes -** Small \"accidents\" in daily life that reveal the unconscious and what is being repressed. Examples: Slip of the tongue (Freudian slip). Mistakes and forgetting. Losing objects. Jokes and humour. False perceptions. **Projection** - *A reaction to ambiguous stimuli where we fill in the blanks*, revealing our unconscious. Projection feels safe because it is not owned by the individual, so the EGO allows it. **Projective Testing -** A psychological method for revealing the unconscious without the individual being aware. **Types of projective techniques:** **Completion:** *Sentence completion tests*. **Association**: *Identifying symbols or associations*, such as animals that represent oneself or the Rorschach inkblot test. **Construction:** *Creating narratives*, as seen in the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). **[Defence mechanisms and Psychosexual stages]** **Overview of Personality Development:** - Learning of new ways to *reduce tension*. - *Defence mechanisms* help us reduce tensions. **Two Processes That Support *Personality Development*** - **Identification**: The internalization of behaviours observed in others. - **Displacement**: Transferring negative feelings from one thing to another. Both are defence mechanisms. Displacements that produce *social and cultural achievements* are known as **sublimations** (a defence mechanism). Example: Studying or sports -- *channelling our energy into something constructive*. **DEFENSE MECHANISMS** - Mental processes that have as their goal the reduction of anxiety. - Protect us from feeling overwhelmed or from sources of threat. - Operate *unconsciously* and deny or distort reality. - *Functional Aspect*: The infant's ego would be too weak to cope with inner tension. - *Dysfunctional Aspect:* Prolonged and excessive use might hinder the ego from gaining sufficient strength for growth (i.e., the ego remains weak). - Ultimately, the goal is to *develop a strong ego that can cope with threats*! - Freud believed that defense mechanisms helped shield the ego from the conflicts created by the id, superego, and reality. **Repression** - the act of forcing awareness of memories, thoughts, and ideas that arouse anxiety into the unconscious. Residues of repressed material may come up in disguised form (e.g., dreams, slips of the tongue). When repression is not being effective enough, other defence mechanisms are deployed. **Projection -** Attributing to others what you do not accept about yourself. Transforming neurotic or moral anxiety (internal) into anxiety external to us, which is easier to deal with. May also enable a person to express threatening impulses under the guise of self-defence. Example: You do not like your boss, but your superego elicits anxiety because it tells you that it is unacceptable not to like your boss. So you convince yourself that the boss does not like you. **Reaction Formation -** When we adopt attitudes and behaviours that are opposite to our true thoughts and feelings. Hiding thoughts and feelings that arouse anxiety. Example: Killing someone with kindness. **Regression -** Reverting to immature patterns of behaviour pertaining to an earlier stage of development. Retreating under stress to a stage during which others were available to help. This is to get help in facing a challenging event. Example: After a fight with her husband that leads to talk of divorce, a young woman returns to her parents' home, where she allows her parents to baby her and cater to her every whim. **Denial -** Blocking external events from awareness. Example: A person denies or pretends they do not suffer from diabetes and continues indulging in sweets. **Rationalization -** Reasoning out or justifying things. Distorting truths that we do not like through the use of logic or reason. Example: "I could have won the race, but my running shoes were hurting me" (larger truth: someone else was faster!). **Intellectualization** - Instead of allowing ourselves to feel, express, and process negative emotions after something happens, intellectualization involves concentrating only on logic and reasoning. **Quiz:** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - The twin cornerstones of | | | psychoanalytic motivation are | | | *sex* (Eros) and *aggression* | | | (Thanatos) | | | | | | - Freud began his self-analysis | | | shortly after his father died | | | | | | - As a youth, he was determined | | | to make an important | | | discovery and become famous | | | from it | | | | | | - The mouth, anus and genitals | | | are called the *erogenous | | | zones* | | | | | | The guilt a person feels after | | | violating personal codes of | | | conduct is called **moral | | | anxiety** | | | | | | **Neurotic anxiety** is the | | | unconscious worry that we will | | | lose control of the *id\'s | | | urges*, resulting in punishment | | | for inappropriate behaviour. | | | | | | **Reality anxiety** is fear of | | | real-world events. The cause of | | | this anxiety is usually easily | | | identified. | | | | | | - Anxiety is felt by the ego | | | | | | - Anxiety triggers *repression* | | | | | | - After a drove or image has | | | been repressed, it may remain | | | unchanged in the unconscious, | | | could force its way into the | | | unconscious in an unchanged | | | form and could be expressed | | | in a disguised or distorted | | | form | | | | | | - The most crucial stage of | | | development is *infancy* | | | | | | - The anal traits consist of | | | compulsive neatness and | | | stubbornness but not | | | aggressiveness | | | | | | - The differences between boys | | | and girls in psychosexual | | | development are due to | | | differences in *anatomy* | | | | | | - Psychoanalysis was influenced | | | from *neuroscience* | | | | | | - The unconscious meaning of | | | dreams is an expression of | | | wish-fulfillments | | | | | | - For boys, the castration | | | complex shatters the Oedipus | | | complex | | | | | |  | | | ------------------------ ------ | | | --------------------------------- | | | --------------------------------- | | | ---------------------- | | | | | | Also for boys The Oe | | | dipus complex comes before the ca | | | stration complex. | | | The ca | | | stration complex takes the form o | | | f *castration anxiety.* | | | The Oe | | | dipus complex is solved when they | | | identify with their father---at | | | around age 5 or 6.\` | | | | | | | | | - For girls, the castration | | | complex takes the form of | | | penis envy and comes before | | | the Oedipus complex | | | | | | - | | +===================================+===================================+ | | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **The Stages of Personality Development** According to Freud, psychological development in childhood takes place in a series of *fixed stages*, which he calls the psychosexual stages: *as a person grows physically certain* *areas of their body* become important sources of potential frustration, pleasure or both. *Each stage represents the fixation of libido* (sexual drives or instincts) on a different area of the body. People feel shame about these needs and can get *fixated at one stage*, remaining stuck in that phase and never resolving the dilemmas of a particular stage. Freud considered the *first 3 to be crucial for the development of personality*. If children *receive too much or too little gratification* in any of these stages, they are at risk of fixation (arrest in development). Therefore, they may need help. First *few years are decisive in the formation of personality.* Freud believed that the basissexual impulses during this stage is the mouth. (libido is found here) - Pleasurable sensations occur as the infant incorporates *food and water/milk.* - The theme in the first year of life is *eating,* an activity that stimulates the lips, mouth, and throat. - When the *teeth appear, biting and chewing* are added. These two modes of activity---*incorporating and biting food*---are prototypes for later *character traits*. **Oral Incorporating**: Acquiring *knowledge* or collecting things. **Oral Aggression**: Heavy use of *sarcasm* or argumentativeness. - Characterized by feelings of *dependency*---the baby relies totally on others for survival, care, and protection. - At this stage in life everything is oral, or *mouth orientated*, such as sucking, biting and breast-feeding. - The baby is believed to get a lot of satisfaction (gratification) from putting all sorts of *things in its mouth to satisfy* *libido*, and thus the demands of the id. - Freud believed that fixation at the oral stage can stem from *weaning that is too early or* - *too late* and that this may result in adult characteristics ranging from overeating or *childlike dependence (late weaning)* to the use of *"biting" sarcasm (early weaning).* - **Developmental Task***:* Moving from *infantile dependency toward self-sufficiency* on the basis of the core event (i.e., feeding) in the first year of life. - Dependency feelings tend to persist to some degree in most of us, arising later in life whenever we feel anxious or insecure. - *Parental behaviour is crucial* in determining whether or not the infant will experience personal difficulties later in life. - *Overindulgence of the infant's needs*: leading to *dependency* and a lack of self-sufficiency later in life. - *Underindulgence:* The mother resents nursing and weans the baby abruptly, leading to *fixation*. - A portion of the libidinal energy available to the individual becomes fixated around this conflict, while the remaining energy flows through to the next stage. - *Oral Stage Fixation*: Passive, gullible, *immature*, and manipulative personality. **ANAL STAGE (1--2 years)** - Pleasurable sensations are focused on the *anal cavity*. - Chief pleasure of the child involves *retention or expulsion of faeces.* - EGO processes are being differentiated from the ID, and the child begins to assert *independence*. - Independence here does not involve rational decision-making but rather a *negativistic independence where the child rejects whatever is offered by the parents.* - This is the time where "no" becomes the child's frequent response. - *Toilet training* is a central activity. Children can resist parental demands to control faeces and urine by acting in *socially unacceptable ways*: - *Refusing to expel faeces despite their parents' insistence*. - *Wetting their pants frequently*. - *Parental Attitudes and Methods:* **Overly strict parents** *may provoke rebellion, leading to anal retention (constipation).* This may later manifest as stinginess, *stubbornness*, or perfectionism. **Lenient parenting** may result in *inappropriate expressions*, such as disorderliness or cruelty (anal explosiveness). - The *child's ego develops* to cope with parental demands for *socially appropriate behaviour*. - Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to full force in potty training. - The child is now fully aware that they are *a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with the demands of the outside world* (i.e. their ego has developed). - The nature of this *first conflict with authority* can determine the child\'s future relationship with all forms of authority. - **Core Theme***:* The child learns that they cannot rely solely on the parent and must begin doing things *independently*. - **Developmental Task***:* Learning to *exercise control over bodily functions and impulses*, delaying gratification for long-term benefits. - **Parental Role***:* Helping the child distinguish between *right and wrong actions* through rewards and punishments. **PHALLIC STAGE (2--5/6 years)** - Sexual tension is focused on the *genital area*. - Both boys and girls derive pleasure *from self-manipulation*. - For *boys*, the sexual tension in this stage involves a *longing for sexual contact with the mother*. They seek affection and love from the mother. - The child is increasingly aware that there is a sexual relationship between their parents and that the *father is their rival*. - However, *the father is bigger and stronger physically*, and the boy fears punishment for his desires---specifically that his *penis will be cut off*. - **Castration Anxiety**: The child alleviates this anxiety by *identifying with the father*. - **Developmental Task***:* *Mastering competitive urges and acquiring gender-role-related behaviours.* - Therefore, the phallic stage is resolved through the *process of identification*, which involves the child adopting the *characteristics of the same sex parent*. - Freud believed that unresolved conflicts from the phallic stage can lead to many problems in adulthood, including difficulties in *dealing with authority figures* and an inability to maintain a *stable love relationship*. - As the phallic stage draws to a close and its conflicts are dealt with by the ego, an interval of psychological peace occurs - *the Latency Period.* - Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals: the child becomes *aware of anatomical sex differences* **Oedipus Complex -** - *Core Theme:* The Oedipus Complex is accompanied by **castration anxiety** (boys) and the Electra Complex characterized by **penis envy** (girls). - *Sexual attraction* *toward the parent of the opposite sex*. - *Hostility toward the same-sex parent*. - *Resolution*: Through identification with the same-sex parent, *Castration anxiety forces boys to repress both their desire for their mother and their hostility toward their father and this is through identification with his rival---the father*. Moreover, repression of *sexual attraction* toward the mother, transforming it *into affection.* *Oedipus finds identity, family separation whilst facing his truth etc.* **Electra Complex: Penis Envy -** - The girl's belief that *she has already been castrated leads her into the Oedipus Complex.* - The girl *blames her mother for not having a penis and develops resentment toward her.* - The girl chooses her *father as a sexual object* because he has a penis, which she desires and hopes to share with him. - *Resolution*: *Repression of sexual feelings toward the father, displacement of sexual feelings from the father onto other men and identification with the mother.* - *The SUPEREGO is an outgrowth of the resolution of the Oedipus Complex*, as the child takes on the values of their parents and their attitudes toward society. - Freud believed that *boys' SUPEREGOs tend to be stronger* than girls'. - For females: *Freud argued that girls compensate for the absence of a penis by emulating boys and masturbating their "stunted penis" (clitoris).* - Girls initially love their mother but grow to resent her for bringing them into the world without a penis. They then begin to love the father and identify with the mother as a means of vicariously obtaining the desired object. - *Freud's View:* Girls have *a weak SUPEREGO* and *little sense of objectivity or justice.* Freud was heavily criticized for these concepts. *Key Critiques:* - In some cultures, a boy's resentment toward his father is based on the *father's powerful position* in the family, not sexual jealousy. - Feminists protested Freud's chauvinistic outlook toward women, which reflected the *patriarchal society of his time.* - Karen Horney: Women do not envy the penis but rather *the status and psychological rewards* associated with being male. **LATENCY STAGE (5/6--12 years)** - *Sexual development is assumed to be at a standstill*, i.e., repression of the child's sexual longings (stems from fear of parental retaliation). - *A person's characteristic way of behaving is established during the first five years of life*, making radical personality change difficult. - *Developmental Task*: Investing *energy in pursuits unrelated to sexual* pleasure, e.g., school, friendships, hobbies. - The child develops the capacity for *sublimation* (defence mechanism) - *Consolidates gender-role identity*. - *The libido is dormant* - During this stage, the child focuses on *new hobbies and acquiring new knowledge* - *Sexual experimentation occurs here (7-9)* and the time of settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship **GENITAL STAGE (12+ years)** - With puberty, *sexual tension* increases dramatically. - Previously, the aims of the sexual instincts have been predominantly autoerotic; now, *the goal is to mate with an appropriate partner.* - Successful adjustment depends on the amount of *libidinal energy available*. Traumatic childhood experiences and libido fixations may hinder this process. - Freud's view of a "normal" person: One who is able to *love and work.* - Early-stage experiences influence the capacity to love and work: - To love*, one must be secure in their identity*, generous, caring, compromising, trusting, and empathic. - To work, *one must be responsible*, dependable, motivated, persistent, and ambitious. - Loving others for *altruistic motives*. - As individuals engage in group activities, prepare for work, and develop relationships, they transform from *pleasure-seeking, self-centred infants into reality-oriented, socialized adults.* - *Developmental Task:* Shifting *from total self-interest to genuine concern for others*, blending mature sexuality with intimacy. - Sexual instinct is directed to *heterosexual pleasure* rather than self-pleasure during the phallic stage **THE PROCESS** - How we go through *each stage is important.* - Parents must allow balanced *gratification at each stage*---not too punitive but not totally permissive. - If we experience trauma or excessive gratification at any stage, we invest a lot of energy in that stag e and can become stuck - fixations. According to Freud, psychological disorders: are caused by *psychological rather than physical* factors are the result of: - **unconscious desires** - **unconscious conflicts becoming extreme or unbalanced** - **childhood experiences** If unresolved conflicts occur in childhood, they will cause '*fixations'* later on in life: the conflict between *the impulse and the prohibition*. Note: According to Freud, the goal of psychology was *to understand the unconscious factors* that lead to problematic feelings, thoughts and behaviours and learn to work through them to *improve daily function.* **FIXATIONS** - **Fixation**: When *ID energy becomes trapped in a stage.* - Develop persistent behaviours that are typical of the stage that affected us. **FIXATIONS: Oral Character** **Oral Receptive Character:** - Results from *overindulgence*. - The person becomes habituated to receiving support and encouragement from others and becomes excessively *dependent*. - Tend to be too trusting, accepting, and *gullible*. - Admire strength and leadership in others but make *little attempt to fend for themselves*. - Gratification is derived from *what others do for them* rather than from their own accomplishments. **FIXATIONS: Oral Aggressive Character:** - *Underindulgence* or severe frustration of the infant\'s needs. - The person learns to exploit others and may develop *sadistic attitudes*. - Tend to *envy others and use manipulative strategies* to dominate them. **FIXATIONS: Anal Character** **Anal Eroticism**: - If parents are *highly punitive and demanding, children may defiantly keep their prized possessions from their parents.* - Later character traits: *Stubbornness*, defiance, and resistance to control by others (anal retentive). - Overly conscientious, rigid, fiercely independent, and persistent in performing even trivial duties. - Frugal and stingy with possessions and money. - *The trait of orderliness is reflected in a need to live by routin*e. Meticulous, perfectionistic, and sticklers for precision. **FIXATIONS: Phallic Character** Stems from *inadequate resolution of the Oedipus/Electra Complex*. *In Males:* A reaction to *severe castration anxiety*. Behave *recklessly, resolutely, and self-assuredly*. Overvaluing of the penis reflected in *vanity and exhibitionism.* Seek to prove masculinity through *repeated conquests of women*. *In Females:* Driven by *penis envy*. Continuously *strive for superiority over men.* Exhibit behaviours considered *castrating toward males.* **FIXATIONS: Genital Character** - *The ideal type.* - Such individuals *are sexually mature and capable of orgasm*. Their libidinal energies are no longer dammed up because they have *found appropriate love objects.* **Freud's View:** *Happiness is the ability to love and be loved*. Although intimacy makes us vulnerable to rejection or loss, it is essential to pursue love nonetheless. **Genital Characters:** Capable of *sublimating their ID impulses through creative and productive work.* A comparison of a person\'s problems Description automatically generated with medium confidence **[Alfred Adler]** **The Main differences between Adler and Freud** 1\. *Outer, social focus*: Intra-psychic life vs Relational and social life 2\. *Perception of what is healthy*: Freud's idea of health is to be able to *love and work*. Adler adds: *social interest and striving for superiority*. The importance to balance our own self-interest with the interest of others. 3*. View of the unconscious*: *Conscious is larger* and *more important* than unconscious. We have more power over ourselves. 4\. *The creative self*: The Self is *active and constructive* not reactive and paralysed by conflict. Self actively seeks experiences to help itself to grow and develop, if they are not to be found, it creates them. Ex:. Frankl in concentration camp. (This ability is stunted in some people because of environments they grow up in. e.g. A girl is taken out of school to care for sick mother never develops a career). 5\. *Motivation*: What motivates us is not only instincts but *overcoming our insecurities and* *inferiorities.* **Adler's theory** **Key terms and concepts** **LIFESTYLE** (Referred to as the *central core* of a person's life and the largest concept in Individual Psychology): It represents the sum of an individual's basic approach to life, The unified and self-consistent pattern of beliefs, perceptions, attitudes, relationships, and actions which make up the total person. ** SOCIAL INTEREST:** A form of empathy; a concern toward the good of others; driven by the need to belong and feel loved. ** INFERIORITY & SUPERIORITY**: Influenced by *Adler's personal life*: Sickly boy and nearly died as a child. Natural consequence of life whereas *children feel inferior to adults* -- perception of ourselves as weak and adults as strong. Conflicts with authority. This feeling is internalised and carried forward in life to become an *inferiority complex*. Inferiority leads to over-compensation and a striving toward superiority. **FAMILY CONSTELLATION:** Its where everything begins! *Child's ordinal position in the family* determines their individuality, personality and style of life. The individual's social setting and one's subjective perception of it will impinge on how the personality of that person develops **CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONALITY -** **PURPOSE:** ** ** Self determined Behaviour is purposeful and goal oriented Behaviours motivated by striving for superiority, quest for belonging and feeling loved. Unity of Personality (HOLISM): Integrated - Takes a decision as a whole and NOT as a result of the struggle between the ID, Ego and Superego. **SUBJECITIVITY:** Individuals differ in their goals and how they try to achieve them. **PRIVATE LOGIC:** Our private intelligence which we develop through experience and guides our behaviour. **What influences personality development?** **Family of origin** -- The very first social reality. Through the family we learn to respect authority figures. ** Early experiences** **One's interpretations and perceptions of reality** \... Our very own conclusions (private logic). **Core Concepts** **SOCIAL INTEREST** An innate capacity for social interest influenced by an innate need for *affection* that drives us towards relationships. Balancing our needs with the needs of others. Enables us to strive for superiority in a healthy non-competitive way. Social Interest -- What does it look like? Waiting for our turn in a queue; Not unloading your worries on your friend if she is crying etc. **Social Interest** ** ** Although innate, parent must nurture it to grow The greater the social interest the sounder the person's mental health If not developed the child will be unable to live successfully in society. Often perceived as selfish people, feared, isolated and not trusted. **STRIVING FOR SUPERIORITY** An innate drive and strong will (a will to power) to grow and overcome our inferiority feelings Feelings of inferiority derived from 3 sources: - The past (ex: being compared to a sibling), - Self-criticism, - Challenges (ex. Physical and mental limitations). **Striving for superiority** Superiority over our own weaknesses and inabilities not over others (low social interest) Mistakes help us to grow * Fictional goal:* Personal goals constituting a self-ideal and compensatory in nature created by ourselves to relieve ourselves from the primary inferiority feeling. **Compensation:** A natural and healthy reaction to inferiority: Efforts to overcome real or imaged inferiority by trying to improve one's own abilities. If a person is unable to compensate for normal feelings of inferiority, they develop an inferiority complex. ** ** Inferiority is normal and productive - Motivates us for further development. **Secondary inferiority** - *exaggerated feeling* of inferiority. These feelings in the adult may be harmful and comprise the inferiority complex. **Inferiority Complex:** when someone is always striving to *find a* *situation in which h/she excels.* **Overcompensation:** An overwhelming drive characterised by overcompensation present due to one's *overwhelming feelings of inferiority*. ** Overt inferiority:** One can portray oneself as inferior but within h/she may harbour *feelings of superiority*. Ex: "Deep down I am better than all of them". **Compensation and Overcompensation** ** Superiority Complex:** When a person has *the need to prove that* *he is more superior than he truly is.* ** ** Superior behaviour compensates for inferiority feelings. Actually born out of inferiority. Ex: An arrogant and entitled person who grew up feeling unimportant and invisible. **FAMILY CONSTELLATION** **Adler believed that birth order, and one's subjective experience within the** **family had a significant and predictable impact on a child's personality, and their** **feeling of inferiority.** ***Birth Order*** **First-born:** Start off with a high amount of *personal power*. Typical traits include: Ego-centric When supported, tend to develop qualities of nurturance and responsibility. Desire to lead or protect (because they are put in that position in the family) More confirmative Cautious: Taking calculated risks More likely to be neurotic: insecure, fears unexpected reversal of fortune and more prone to suffer from anxiety. Fears of being surpassed Sets high standards and ambitious When dethroned -- strives to retain 1st position -- may effect self-confidence. **2nd born:** Since birth in the *shadow* of their older sibling. Has to live up to the pace of the older sibling Needs to establish a separative individuality Incessantly striving for superiority If encouraged and supported, h/she will be better adjusted **Youngest child/3rd born:** Operates from a constant state of *inferiority* Constantly trying to prove themselves due the perceived inferiority relative to the rest of the family. ** There are two types:** ** The more successful type** -- excels and *surpasses every member* of the family. ** The second type --** unspoken expectations to remain a child; may be too dependent, lacks necessary self-confidence -- becomes evasive and avoidant toward the rest of the family. If the age-gap is big, the experience might be similar to an only child. With the 3rd born, issues of fairness and justic emerge for the middle child. The middle child becomes a good negotiator. **Only child:** Unfortunate due to their being the *sole object of their parents'* *attention.* More likely to become dependent and reliant on others. Pampering may lead to maladjustment -- May also come to see the world as a hostile place due to their parents' constant vigilance. May possess some characteristics of the first or the youngest child. **Other important considerations** Alliances. Gender arrangement: (Ex: A girl after 4 boys) Age gap. Significant family events: e.g. Illnesses within the family including postnatal depression, Miscarriage before or after child, H/o infertility -- a child after many years of childlessness or after last child, Death of a child or a significant family member Marital separation Unemployment Assigned sibling roles Sibling rivalry **Core Concept** **LIFESTYLE** Everybody strives for superiority, pursues goals and fights inferiority in a different way. Our STYLE OF LIFE is the WAY we choose to pursue these (guided through private logic). **Lifestyle & Private Logic** A lifestyle is determined by: 1\. Our fictional goals: *Goals* (often ideals) we set for ourselves to feel that we've overcome the sense of inferiority. 2\. The influence of the *environment* (e.g. parent you admire and wish to imitate, economic insecurity, poverty, aggressive siblings, mentally ill relative). 3\. *Subjective* experience of environmental factors. Private logic: A kind of private intelligence; a road map developed in the first **6 years of life** where we learn (subjectively) how we need to behave in order to feel loved, experience a sense of belonging and overcome feelings of inferiority. **Types of Lifestyle** **Active Constructive:** A person who is committed to *forming a good family*. + + **Active Destructive**: A hostile, backstabbing, lazy employee. A chronically *unfaithful husband/wife. Directly. - -* **Passive Constructive:** A laid back salesperson who gets on well with clients. *A parent who does not contribute at home but is warm. - +* **Passive Destructive:** A worker who complains constantly. Indirectly. *A parent who neglects children and meets own needs all day. - -* **How do we identify a lifestyle?** One way of determining style of life is through *earliest recollection* *and memories* (pattern in what we remember, we remember according to our values) **Maladaptive Lifestyle** -- No social interest No social interest, makes a dangerous person in society -- characterised by Strong feelings of inferiority, be angry and resentful towards society. Due to organic inferiority, physical "defects", sickness and disability. Sense of entitlement often as a result of a neglectful childhood. May see society as harsh and stingy, become blindly acquisitive, anger and revenge: Society has to give me what I was deprived of. **Relevance of this theory** Very relevant to *teachers and parents* because it gives a lot of attention to our early socialisation and parents and teachers are major agents of early socialisation. Useful as a way of understanding *family dynamics* and helping clients to understand their experience in the family. E.g. two siblings who live in the same family can have a totally different experience and perception of it. **THERAPEUTIC IMPLICATIONS** ** ** Emphasis on the need to see and understand the person in his/her context. We understand reality according to our perception of it. The overarching goal of *Adlerian psychotherapy* is to help the patient overcome *inferiority complex*. We identify errors in one's private logic by assessing/understanding one's lifestyle. **[Major paradigms in Psychology the Psychodynamic Paradigm: an Introduction]** **LEARNING OUTCOMES** **To introduce students to three of the major areas of Psychology:** ➤ Psychoanalysis ➤ The Humanistic Existential Paradigm ➤ Behaviourism. To provide a *foundation of psychological knowledge* required for subsequent courses (these paradigms are the foundation stones on which most psychological theories are built). To expose students to the underlying values and attitudes typically associated with these paradigms. **WHAT IS A PARADIGM?** ➤ A paradigm *is a set of ideas, a way of looking at something, a framework through which we interpret reality.* ➤ A generally *accepted perspective, position or view of a particular discipline at a given time*. ➤ A universally recognisable *scientific achievement* that, for a time, *provides model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners.* (Kuhn, 1962) ➤ Scientists accept the dominant paradigm until anomalies appear, scientists begin to *question the paradigm and new theories emerge* to challenge the dominant paradigm until a new one takes its place **WHAT IS A PARADIGM SHIFT?** ➤ A scientific revolution occurs when 1. *The new paradigm better explains the observations* and offers a model that is closer to objective, external reality 2. The new paradigm is *incommensurable* (does not fit) with the old. 3. Examples: Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection replaced Lamarckian theory. (Giraffe) Ptolemy's cosmo-centric theory was replaced by Copernicus' heliocentric model Copernican Revolution. Newton's theory was replaced by Einstein's theory of gravity. **PSYCHOLOGY - A UNIQUE DISCIPLINE!** ➤ Psychology does not have one widely accepted paradigm, but *several competing schools or camps.* ➤ It is a complex discipline with many branches that reflects the *complexity of the organism:* ➤ Psychoanalysis ➤ Behaviourism ➤ Cognitive Psychology ➤ Humanistic-Existential perspective ➤ Neuropsychology ➤ There has been no need for a Kuhnian revolution in psychology because *many paradigms co-exist and successful ideas have persisted and survived* (evolutionary epistemology). ➤ Psychology is a *multiparadigm discipline*. ➤ Different paradigms in psychology provide *different ways for understanding behaviour -* psychoanalysis is one way **THREE PARADIGMS OF PSYCHOLOGY WE WILL FOCUS ON IN THIS COURSE** - 1st force: *Psychoanalysis* - *espouses determinism* - 2nd force: *Behaviourism* - a reaction to psychoanalysis. Focuses only on what is *measurable* - 3rd force: *Humanistic-Existential perspective* - a reaction to both. At its core is *the belief in human potential to determine* and live meaningful lives. **PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY** **BEHAVIOURISM** The three waves of **psychoanalysis**: ➤ First wave: *Drive Psychology* (Freud, Jung) ➤ Second wave: *Ego Psychology* (A. Freud, Hartmann, Rapaport, Kernberg) ➤ Third wave: *British Schools - Object Relations Theory and Self Psychology* (Klein, Fairbairn, Bion, Winnicott, Mahler, Kohut). The founding father of psychoanalysis - *Sigmund Freud* **PERSONALITY AND MAJOR PARADIGMS: HOW ARE THEY RELATED?: DEFINING PERSONALITY: A PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE** **➤** Various definitions. **3 FOCAL POINTS OF PERSONALITY** ➤ STRUCTURE ➤ DYNAMICS ➤ DEVELOPMENT DEFINITIONS OF PERSONALITY ➤ Is a complex pattern of deeply embedded, *long-lasting psychological characteristics* ➤ These characteristics are largely *non-conscious and not easily altered* ➤ They express themselves *automatically* in almost every facet of functioning ➤ These *intrinsic, pervasive traits* emerge from a complicated matrix of *biological dispositions and experiential learnings* ➤ They comprise the *individual's distinctive pattern of feeling, thinking*, *coping and behaving* **THE 5 HUMAN DOMAINS** (WATCH VIDS -- CERTIAN DOMAINS ARE MORE DOMINANT) POSSIBLE QUESTION 1\. PHYSICAL DOMAIN (health and bodily functions) 2\. EMOTIONAL DOMAIN (regulating one's emotions) 3\. COGNITIVE DOMAIN (mental processes like thinking and problem-solving) 4\. BEHAVIOURAL DOMAIN (actions and behaviours) 5\. SPIRITUAL DOMAIN (meaning and purpose through something bigger) PERSONALITY DOMAINS CONT\'D IMPORTANT QUESTIONS... ➤ Nature or nurture? ➤ Instinctive or Intentional? ➤ Are we a product of our past? ➤ How conscious are we of what we do? Blind areas ➤ What are your thoughts? ➤ What are the implications of each of these debates? **BLIND AREAS** ➤ *Example: You lent a friend money and she never returned it. You vow you will never lend her money again. She asks you for money to buy a gift for her sick mother. You give her the money again. How conscious are you that she played on your guilt feelings and you are easily manipulable when made to feel mean?* Self-awareness varies. Areas in our thinking, perception or behaviour where we are unaware of our biases, limitations or shortcomings. **WHY FOCUS ON PERSONALITY?** **Therapeutic purpose --** ➤ Assessment ➤ Research ➤ Theory ➤ We study personality to *understand, predict and treat.* **[Carl Gustav Jung: Analytical psychology]** **[(exploring the interplay between the conscious and unconscious mind, emphasizing concepts like archetypes, the collective unconscious, and the process of individuation to achieve psychological wholeness)]** Carl Gustav Jung 1875-1961 Was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who was the founder of *analytical psychology*. Together with Alfred Adler, Jung is a *first-generation* follower of Freud Studies in Word Association (1906) - sent to Freud Psychology of The *Unconscious* (1912) First president of the International Psychoanalytic Association, founded in 1910, and (initially) Freud's 'crown prince'. (Mentally ill vs Psychiatry) He introduced concepts like the **collective unconscious**, **archetypes**, and **psychological types** (e.g., introversion and extraversion) Jung\'s work deeply influenced *psychology, ethology, philosophically, spirituality, and the study of the human psyche.* **Main divergences from psychoanalysis** Divergence from Freud in 1913 - split that caused analytical psychology to separate from psychoanalysis Initially upheld Freud's ideas, but later irreparable damage to relationship caused by Jung's disagreement, mainly with respect to sexuality - he *resisted Freud's 'pan-sexuality'*. *Spiritual more important* than sexual. Also added *teleological lens* to the causality proposed by Freud - *looks at future (prospective) as well as past (retrospective):* "the person lives by aims as well as by causes." Emphasised *the role of purpose* - the search for wholeness and completion, creative development, the yearning for rebirth, not just the endless repetition of *instinctual themes*. Higher rather than primitive functions - eschewed the determinism of infancy, focused on *awareness and existence.* The unconscious is sophisticated, not primitive, and acts as a *guide*, rather than being merely a system of defence The *foundations of personality are archaic (ancient),* primitive, innate, unconscious and universal. Modern humans shaped by cumulative experiences of past generations.(cultural/tribal vs infantile origins of personality). There is a *racially preformed and collective personality* that is modified and elaborated by experiences - therefore personality is a result of inner forces and outer forces in a mutual relationship - acting upon each other Emphasises the importance of *middle-age in the development of the person* - a psychology for adults Jung's work was influential in various fields: *Psychiatry, anthropology, archeology, literature, philosophy and religious studies* Main tenets of Jungian analytical psychology (structure, development and dynamics) *1. The structure of personality* *2. The dynamics of personality* *3. The development of personality* The structure of personality: *systems, attitudes, functions* NOTE - a person's first test of courage is realizing the shadow, To Jung the total personality, or psyche consists of a number of different interacting *systems*: * The Ego* * The personal unconscious and its complexes* * The collective unconscious and its archetypes* -- - *The persona* - *The anima and the animus* - *The shadow* - *The Self (represented by the mandala)* In addition to these systems there are: The attitudes -- *introversion and extraversion* The functions - *thinking, feeling, sensing and intuiting*. **The Ego** Ego is *gatekeeper of consciousness*. Chooses what comes in to the system in order to *maintain identity and continuity*. **The personal Unconscious**  The personal unconscious - *contains all forgotten experiences that have lost their intensity* **Personal Unconscious: Complexes** The personal unconscious contains *Complexes*. A complex is *an organised group or constellation of feelings, thoughts, perceptions and memories that exist in the personal unconscious.* It has a nucleus that acts as an agent attracting to it or constellating various experiences. *A group of emotionally charged thoughts* that are related to a particular theme **The mother complex** E.g the mother complex (Jung 1954). The nucleus is derived in part from *racial experiences with mothers and in part from the child's actual experiences with the real mother.* At the core of any mother complex is a *collective image of nourishment and security on the one hand and devouring possessiveness on the other.* **The collective unconscious** The Collective Unconscious is the storehouse of *latent memory traces inherited from our ancestors, also our animal ancestors* - the psychic residue of human evolutionary development. Big dreams. -- imp. of dream analysis **Archetypes** The *structural components of the collective unconscious* are called Archetypes: A universal thought form (idea) that contains a large element of emotion. They are *symbolic images we unconsciously understand.* **Archetypes of the Maltese Collective unconscious: The Venus of Malta** The structure and design of a given monument may be seen as an external symbol of the group's internal world. The Venus of Malta is a tribute to the symbol of fertility and the womb which generates mankind's very existence. The Venus figures have pendulous breasts, round buttocks and protruding stomachs representing pregnancy. The positive pole of the mother archetype Darmanin Kissaun (2016) **Archetypes of the Maltese collective unconscious: The goddess of death** With the passage of time humanity developed and the great mother also became the wielder of death and destruction besides the giver of life. (Neumann, as cited in Darmanin Kissaun, 2016). The Hypogeum in Hal-Safi can be said to represents the 'negative pole' of the mother archetype (Darmanin-Kissaun, 2016) **Aerial view of the temples** The aerial view of the various temples also depicts the entrance to the temples -through the legs of the goddess, another representation of the devouring and encompassing aspect of the great mother. Darmanin-Kissaun (2016) The myth of the sun god's son Phaethon -- This tells of his reckless attempt to drive his father's chariot across the sky, losing control and causing chaos before being struck down by Zeus to save the world. **Personality archetypes** *There are many archetypes in the collective unconscious* e.g. birth, rebirth, death, power, magic, unity, the hero, the child, God, the demon, the old wise man, the earth mother and the animal. **The Hero's journey chart (archetypes)** The Hero\'s Journey chart is a visual outline of the stages of transformation and growth a protagonist undergoes in a narrative, based on Joseph Campbell\'s universal storytelling framework. 1. **Start**: The hero begins in their ordinary world, living a normal life unaware of the adventure ahead. 2. **Call to Adventure**: The hero is presented with a challenge or quest that disrupts their ordinary life. 3. **Meeting a Mentor**: They encounter a guide or mentor who offers advice, tools, or encouragement to face the journey. 4. **Crossing the Threshold**: The hero leaves their familiar world and enters an unknown, often dangerous realm. 5. **Trials and Failure**: They face obstacles, challenges, and failures, which test their strength and resolve. 6. **Growth and New Skills**: Through these trials, the hero learns, grows, and develops new abilities. 7. **Death and Rebirth**: The hero confronts a major ordeal, symbolizing a figurative or literal death and rebirth into a stronger self. 8. **Revelation**: They gain a deeper understanding or insight about themselves or the world. 9. **Finally Changes**: The hero undergoes a transformation, embracing their new role or identity. 10. **Atonement**: They reconcile with the past, often repairing relationships or righting wrongs. 11. **Gets Gift**: The hero obtains a reward, treasure, or knowledge to share with others. 12. **Truly Changed and End**: The hero returns to their ordinary world, now transformed, bringing the gift or lessons to benefit their community**.** This journey reflects personal growth, resilience, and transformation, making it a universal model for storytelling and self-discovery. **Important archetypes** Archetypes can become relatively independent from the rest of the personality and some have evolved so far as to warrant their being treated as separate systems within the personality. Inherited mode of function. The following are the important archetypes that are *central to how our psyche functions*: - *Persona* - *Shadow* - *Self* - *Animus and Anima Jung centred his work on his neurosis around discovering the meanings behind the hallucinations that he and his patients experienced.* **The Persona** The Persona is a mask adopted by the person in response to the *demands of social convention and tradition* and to his or her own inner archetypal needs (Jung 1945). It is our public personality, contrasted by the private personality that exists behind the facade. **The Shadow** The shadow archetype consists of the *animal instincts* that humans inherited in their evolution from lower forms of life - hence the animal side of human nature. **The animus and the anima** Jung ascribed the *feminine side of man's personality (anima*) and the *masculine side of woman's personality to archetypes (animus).* **The Self** The main concept of Jung's psychology of total unity is the self. The self is *life's goal.* It is the midpoint of personality, around which all of the other systems are constellated. It *holds these systems together* and provides the personality with unity, equilibrium and stability. Example: finding inner peace. FREUD -- CASUAL THEORY, ADLER -- TELEOLOGICAL THEORY AND JUNG WAS BOTH REFLECTION ON THE STAGES OF LIFE The consciousness is the outside, the ego is the central field of consciousness that gives us identity. Identity of childhood. The personal conscious links with the conscious and the collective unconscious, has complexes made up of archetypes. The middle is the self which includes the ambition to grow and develop. The environment unlocks the archetypes to become active. **The attitudes: Extraversion and introversion (Form typology theory which was an imp. notion)** The extraverted attitude orients the person towards the external, *objective* world of things, people and activities. Ego is towards the *persona*.  The introverted attitude orients the person toward the inner subjective world of thoughts, fantasies, feelings and dreams(different from lay understanding of sociable/unsociable). Ego towards the *collective unconscious and its archetypes.* Jung intended for the terms to refer to *whether the ego is more offend faced towards the persona and outer reality, or toward the collective unconscious and its archetypes* **The functions** Jung introduced two pairs of functions to account for differences in the strategies people employ to acquire and process information (now called *cognitive styles*). *Rational functions*: Thinking and feeling; *Irrational functions*: Sensation and intuition The four functions -- Example clarifying the nature of the four functions - person standing at the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River (Hall et al, 1998): **The Dynamics of personality** The personality, or psyche, for Jung is a partially closed energy system. It is partially closed because the *personality dynamics are subject to influences and modifications from external sources*, therefore cannot be perfectly stabilised as would a completely closed system. *Energy is constantly flowing from one system of personality into other* systems. These redistributions of energy constitute the dynamics of personality. **The three principles of psychic energy:** *The Principle of Opposites*: If you have one quality, you must also have it's opposite, or the potential for it's opposite. *The Principle of Equivalence* states that if *energy* is expended in bringing about certain conditions, the amount expended will appear somewhere else in the system. Here Jung applied *the first law of thermodynamics* to the psyche, where the lowering of one value means the raising of another value. *The Principle of Entropy*: Here Jung applied *the second law of thermodynamics*: if two bodies of different temperatures are placed in contact with one another, heat will pass from the hotter to the colder body. The principle of entropy results in *equilibrium* (e.g. of two objects achieving thermal balance). Jung applied this principle to psychic energy : *the distribution of energy in the psyche seeks an equilibrium*. **Sublimation and repression** Psychic energy can be transferred from one process to another process in the same or different system by means of *equivalence and entropy*. If the displacement is governed by the individuation process and the transcendent function, it is called *sublimation*. Sublimation is the *displacement of energy from the more primitive to higher cultural, spiritual processes* e.g. energy is withdrawn from the sex drive and invested in religious values. *Repression* occurs when the discharge of energy through both instinctual or sublimated channels is blocked. Repressed energy cannot just disappear so it takes up residence in the unconscious, rendering it more highly charged than the conscious ego. Repressed energy -- unconscious. **The development of personality** One very important feature of Jung's personality theory is the emphasis upon the *forward-going character of personality and development*. Jung believed that humans are *constantly progressing to a more complete stage of development* (Hall et al, 1998) A central tenet of Jungian psychology is that *personality has a tendency to develop in the direction of a stable unity*. In order to realise this aim, it is necessary for the *various systems of personality to become completely differentiated and fully developed.* To have a healthy integrated personality, every system must be permitted to reach the fullest degree of differentiation, development and expression. This is called the *individuation process*. It also includes joining the conscious and unconscious together whilst maximising human potential. **Two main goals of Jungian analysis** 1\. The expansion of the ego through the *assimilation of contents from the personal and collective unconscious.* In this way a greater balance and a spontaneous *flow of psychic energy between the two realms can be achieved.* 2\. The individuation process and the work towards a more complex *wholeness of the individual*. **Criticism levelled at Jung's theory** Jung was accused of having *psychotic fears* from which he defended against by retreating into a subjective world. His *obsession with wholeness* was sometimes viewed as a flight from destructiveness, disintegration and madness His *theories are very hard to verify experimentally* because they are abstract and non-empirical Seen as *overly mystical*, esoteric and unscientific His *writing is difficult to understand*, not always logical. **Strengths of Jung's theory** His typologies have had a *major influence on our culture*, and personality assessment. His ideas about *self-realisation and individuation emphasised health* rather than merely pathology in the form of a psychology of healthy persons. His concept of the *collective unconscious* is often viewed as one of the most unique and creative ideas in psychology. He took into *consideration adult development and maturity* and focused on middle age as a time for potential growth His theory is *forward-looking, and not just retrospective*, i.e. not merely focused on childhood experiences His concepts are *applicable to psychotherapy.* **Hero**: Represents courage, strength, and the drive to overcome challenges, often embodying the quest for self-discovery or societal triumph. **Mother**: Symbolizes nurturing, care, and creation, reflecting both the literal and metaphorical source of life and growth. **Wise Old Man**: Embodies wisdom, guidance, and insight, often serving as a mentor or advisor who helps others on their journey.