TCT 102 - History of the Republic of Turkey PDF

TCT 102 – HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF TÜRKİYE Assoc. Prof. Ufuk Adak [email protected]  27 May 1960: Military Coup Power at the hands of the National Unity Committee (Milli Birlik Komitesi) Democratic Party was closed down for going against the c...

TCT 102 – HISTORY OF THE REPUBLIC OF TÜRKİYE Assoc. Prof. Ufuk Adak [email protected]  27 May 1960: Military Coup Power at the hands of the National Unity Committee (Milli Birlik Komitesi) Democratic Party was closed down for going against the constitution – Party leaders were arrested were accused of suppressing opposition – Constitutional and corruption charges were brought against the DP leaders – Adnan Menderes, Fatin Rüştü Zorlu, and Hasan Polatkan were sentenced to death  27 May 1960: Military Coup National Unity Committee was in total charge of the country Cemal Gürsel became the new president – His advisor Alparslan Türkeş became influential over the National Unity Committee, but Cemal Gürsel regarded his opinions as too radical and removed him from power Purges in the army and in universities 1960-1963: unrest in the army; other coup attempts  Return to Democracy Overall, those who held power wanted to return to civilian politics A Constituent Assembly with two houses was formed: National Unity Committee and House of Representatives A group of law professors from İstanbul and Ankara Universities were summoned to draft a new constitution A Constitutional Committee was established within the Constituent Assembly  Return to Democracy Important features of the 1961 Constitution: – Balancing the power of the national assembly and the government – Constitutional Court was established – National Security Council (Milli Güvenlik Konseyi): advised the government on domestic and foreign policy issues Consists of the President, Council of Ministers, and major commanders of the army – The division of powers principle was introduced  Return to Democracy Important features of the 1961 Constitution: – Bicameralism: two chambers, Republican Senate and the National Assembly – All legislation had to pass both chambers – Autonomy was granted to universities and media (TRT) – Civil and collective liberties were extended – 6 pillars of Kemalism in the 1924 Constitution were replaced with new concepts: Nation-state instead of the nationalism principle New principles: rule of law, welfare state, respect for democracy, respect for human rights  Politics in the 1960s 1961 elections: The emergence of the Justice Party (Adalet Partisi) – First leader was Ragıp Gümüşpala, then replaced by Süleyman Demirel – Heirs of Democratic Party became successful in the 1961 elections, but no party was successful enought to form the government alone – A number of coalition governments were formed until 1965 elections, mostly under the leadership of İnönü – Workers’ Party of Turkey: for the first time a socialist party entered the parliament  Politics in the 1960s 1965 elections: Justice Party (JP) and Demirel in power JP consisted of people from very different backgrounds and Demirel’s authority over the party was not total – Demirel emphasized traditional values and anti-communism to consolidate his voters Economic growth sustained Demirel’s popularity in the ‘60s  Politics in the 1960s Like Menderes before him, Demirel was popular in the countryside but unpopular among the educated urban population Different from DP period: checks and balances in the system – Autonomous universities, autonomous broadcasting, Constitutional Court restricted the authority of the government  Politics in the 1960s The rise of Bülent Ecevit in the Republican People’s Party – New ideological orientation of RPP – Ecevit emphasized social justice and defined the party’s position as “left of center” – Ecevit tried to attract votes from poorer neighbourhoods, from the countryside, from working classes – Ecevit became secretary general of the party in 1966 Within RPP, ideological conflict over Ecevit’s program Throughout the 1960s, RPP could not make a big leap, because ideological confusion continued within the party  Politics in the 1960s 1960s were politically very diverse Different from previous decades, there were a number of different political parties with different ideological orientations Radical left and radical right became more visible Social mobility: mobility started in 1950s – Immigration from villages to cities – Increasing number of workers: workers’ movements – Increasing numbers of students in cities  Politics in the 1960s In 1960s, there were student protests throughout the world Universities became the most important centers of political activity 1968 generation Civil rights movements and anti-war protests against the Vietnam War in the United States France: student riots Invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968: caused split in leftist movements around the world  Politics in the 1960s: Leftist Movements Workers’ Party of Turkey: popular among intellectuals – First chairman: Mehmet Ali Aybar Increasing number of periodicals, journals dedicated to different variations of socialism Federation of Idea Clubs in universities (Fikir Kulüpleri Federasyonu) “Revolutionary Youth” organized in universities (Dev-Genç)  Politics in the 1960s: Leftist Movements Leftist groups in Turkey were split over: – the role of the army in a possible revolution – whether the Soviet Union was an appropriate role model – whether socialism could be brought by democratic means – whether Turkey was ready for a socialist revolution – whether socialism should be brought through the use of force or not 15-16 June 1970: workers’ demonstrations in Istanbul – One of the largest workers’ demostration in Turkey  Politics in the 1960s: Rightist Movements Republican Peasants Nation Party (Cumhuriyetçi Köylü Millet Partisi) In 1965, Alparslan Türkeş became its chairman In 1969, the party’s name was changed to Nationalist Action Party (Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi)  Politics in the 1960s: Rightist Movements Main characteristics of the party: Nationalist, anti-leftist, Pan- Turkist – Strictly secular at first, started to make Islamic references after 1869 Nine Lights (Dokuz Işık): the document which outlined the basic principles of the party Youth organization: Hearths of the Ideal (Ülkü Ocakları)  Politics in the 1960s: Rightist Movements 1970: Necmettin Erbakan, former JP deputy, established the National Order Party (Milli Nizam Partisi) Criticized Demirel and JP for favoring the interests of big businesses, disregarding small Anatolian businesses. Critical of foreign capital, blame JP for being subservient to foreign capital Nationalism blended with Islamic values  Last Years of the 1960s Increasing political activity among students Clashes between rightist and leftist groups Demirel government was unable to stop violence and political turmoil Military Ultimatum of 12 March 1971 In order to stop political “anarchy,” the army wanted the establishment of a strong government to undertake social and economic reforms. If these demands were not met, the army threatened with overthrowing the government. – The ultimatum was given by high ranking generals and it was anti-socialist in character İnönü and Demirel advised caution to their deputies Military Ultimatum of 12 March 1971 New government was formed under the Prime Ministry of Nihat Erim Cabinet made up of non-political technocrats Economic reforms to protect Turkish industrialization Military Ultimatum of 12 March 1971 April 1971: Martial law was declared in all major cities because of continuing conflicts between rightist and leftist groups – Soldiers were patrolling the cities – Large numbers of leftist activists (syndicate leaders, politicians, intellectuals, academics) were detained by the military – Many detainees were tortured Workers Party of Turkey was closed down in 1971 Military Ultimatum of 12 March 1971 Nihat Erim’s government moved further right in 1972; compromised with the rightist deputies in the assembly – The influence of Demirel and his friends gradually increased Constitution was revised in a conservative fashion – The autonomy of universities and broadcasting ended – Individual and collective liberties were restricted – Journalistic freedom was restricted – The authority of the National Security Council was extended – National Security Courts (Devlet Güvenlik Mahkemeleri) were established  Return to Democracy, 1970s 1972: Bülent Ecevit became the new leader of the Republican People’s Party – He criticized the army’s involvement in politics and the antidemocratic policies of the government 1973 elections: Ecevit’s new RPP became the first party 1974: Coalition between Ecevit’s RPP and Erbakan’s National Salvation Party (Milli Selamet Partisi) – Both parties were against American and European economic influence Ecevit’s popularity increased after the Cyprus intervention of 1974 Return to Democracy, 1970s In 1974, Ecevit resigned with the hope of early elections, but the elections were not made Demirel formed a new government with a broad coalition Increasing economic crisis and political violence in the country 1977 elections: Ecevit’s RPP became the first party again  Return to Democracy, 1970s From 1974 to 1980: a number of coalition governments under Ecevit or Demirel – Unable to stop political violence – Continuing economic crisis – None of the governments lasted for a long time – Governments were based on fragile coalitions – Governments were not powerful enough to stop violence or solve economic problems Return to Democracy, 1970s From 1974 to 1980: a number of coalition governments under Ecevit or Demirel – JP and RPP could not compromise and led to increasing political and social polarization – State mechanism was unable to function because of political infighting In the first 6 months of 1980, the parties could not reach an agreement about the new president Political Violence in the 1970s Bloody conflicts between rightist and leftist university students Ethnic and sectarian conflicts also surfaced Economic crisis made the situation worse State protection for rightist groups: supporters among the police and military Continuing martial law in big cities Political Violence in the 1970s 1 May 1977: Bloody May 1: 34 people died in Taksim Square Maraş, Çorum Massacres (1978-1980): Attacks against Alevi communities: 150 Alevi people were killed in Maraş and nearly 60 were killed in Çorum Gün Sazak, vice chairman of Nationalist Action Party, Nihat Erim, former Prime Minister, and chairman of DİSK syndicate Kemal Türkler were murdered in 1980 Neighbourhoods were shared between political groups DİSK chairman Kemal Türkler delivering speech on May 1, 1977 May 1, 1977, Taksim Square Social Transformation in the 1970s Increasing industrialization in the 1960s Mass migration from countryside to cities The appearance of shantytowns (gecekondu) Problems of infrastructure and unplanned urbanization Few people found jobs in major industries Social Transformation in the 1970s Immigration to Germany: – Started in the 1960s – Germany needed manpower for its post-war economic and industrial recovery – German government tried to attract immigrants from poor European countries such as Italy, Greece, and Turkey – Most immigrants moved directly from their villages & towns to Germany: cultural shock First immigrants to Germany First immigrants in Germany Social Transformation in the 1970s In 1974: 800.000 Turkish workers in Germany Late 1970s: More than 2.5 million Turkish workers in all Western Europe First immigrants were considered as “guest workers” At first, immigrants wanted to come back to Turkey once they saved enough money, but because of unemployment and political crisis in Turkey, many preferred to stay. – Gradually, families joined workers in Germany Social Transformation in the 1970s The problem of illegal immigration to Europe Economic stagnation in Europe after mid-1970s: growing resentment of local population against immigrants Problems of integration to German society Workers’ Movements in the 1970s Growth of workers’ unions: successes at negotiating with industrialists over workers’ rights – Rival workers’ unions tried to attract workers to their side New social security policies: the establishment of social security mechanisms for workers and self-employed people – Restrictions on working hours, restrictions on child labor Workers’ Movements in the 1970s Economic stagnation in the second half of the 1970s: increasing strikes & workers’ demonstrations Unemployment increased in the second half of the 1970s Economics in the 1960s and 1970s Economy was more planned compared to 1950s – The establishment of State Planning Organization (Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı) in 1960 – SPO drafted five year development plans to support Turkish industrialization – JP and RPP had different attitudes with regard to economic planning and the role of state in economy Economics in the 1960s and 1970s Import-substitute industrialization in 1960s and 1970s: Replacing foreign imports with domestic production; supporting national industries, thus reducing dependency on foreign goods Local industrialization was encouraged in the 1960s and 1970s by: – tax reduction – financial support – restrictions on foreign imports by high tariffs – government credits and investors and farmers – increasing workers’ wages and revitalizing domestic market Economics in the 1960s and 1970s Partnerships between foreign and Turkish investors: Foreign investors providing expertise and technical knowledge Indirectly, this brought dependency on foreign experts and financial help Army was one of the active participants in industrialization State-run companies were also important for industrialization Economics in the 1960s and 1970s Most industrial production was made by state-run companies, not private companies – But, decisions of these companies generally reflected political decisions, not economic benefit – Their staff were generally appointed for political reasons – Most state-run companies were inefficient and could not profit Little competition between companies: companies were not able to compete in international market Local industrial production was for domestic consumption, not for export Economics in the 1960s and 1970s Constant trade deficit OPEC oil crisis in the second half of the 1970s: increased the burden on Turkey Increasing energy prices and shortages Rising inflation Rise of black markets Economics in the 1960s and 1970s 1978: negotiations with the IMF, World Bank, and OECD for economic reforms IMF program: cutting state expenditure, loosening restrictions on import, cutting off government credits to farmers and investors, loosening interest rates – Sharp devaluation of Turkish lira The program was put into effect by Turgut Özal, then Undersecretary of the Prime Ministry International Relations in the 1960s and 1970s Basic pillars: NATO membership and American alliance in the Cold War context – Because, Turkey needed American financial assistance But, there were also problems with the USA: – Cyprus Question – Opium Crisis  International Relations in the 1960s and 1970s Dependence on America? Americans could use certain military bases in Turkey They were exempt from Turkish laws Increasing dependence on American military and financial aid was criticized by leftist activists “Independent Turkey” became one of the most common leftist slogans of 1960s and 1970s International Relations in the 1960s and 1970s: Opium Crisis Drug addiction became a social concern in the USA in 1960s – Americans pressured Turkey to stop its opium production Opium was very profitable for Turkish peasants – Used in pharmaceutical industry During Nihat Erim’s term, agreement was reached with Americans and opium production was banned When he became the Prime Minister, Ecevit lifted the ban on opium production in 1974 – Another reason for Ecevit’s popularity among peasants in the 1970s International Relations in the 1960s and 1970s: Cyprus Crisis Pressure on Turkish minority in Cyprus in the 1960s 1964: Johnson letter: President Lyndon Johnson sent a threatening letter to then Prime Minister İnönü, when Turkey hinted at the possibility of military intervention – Johnson threatened that in case of a Soviet attack, NATO will not protect Turkey – Did not allow Turkey to use American weapons in Cyprus 1967: Military coup in Greece – Encouraged nationalists in Cyprus to unite the island with Greece International Relations in the 1960s and 1970s: Cyprus Crisis 1974: Military rulers of Greece encouraged a military coup in Cyprus and declared Enosis July 1974: Military intervention in Cyprus to protect the Turkish minority on the island – Turkey’s guarantor status legitimized Turkish military intervention – August 1974: Second military operation by the Turkish troops – American military embargo on Turkey between 1974-1978 Military Operation in Cyprus, 1974 International Relations in the 1960s and 1970s: Cyprus Crisis Northern part of Cyprus became a separate entity since then 1983: Northern Cyprus declared itself an independent republic, but only Turkey recognizes Northern Cyprus Cyprus question is still unsolved  Turkey in the Year 1980 Unsolved economic crisis Rise of political violence Sectarian and ethnic conflicts Inefficient party politics, which brought the country to a deadlock 12 September 1980: military coup