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Questions and Answers
What was one of the common leftist slogans in Turkey during the 1960s and 1970s?
What was one of the common leftist slogans in Turkey during the 1960s and 1970s?
Which event led to the American military embargo on Turkey between 1974-1978?
Which event led to the American military embargo on Turkey between 1974-1978?
What was the primary reason for the Turkish peasants' support for Ecevit in the 1970s?
What was the primary reason for the Turkish peasants' support for Ecevit in the 1970s?
What significant threat did President Lyndon Johnson pose to Turkey in 1964?
What significant threat did President Lyndon Johnson pose to Turkey in 1964?
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What was a major consequence of the military intervention in Cyprus in 1974?
What was a major consequence of the military intervention in Cyprus in 1974?
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Which of the following statements is true regarding Turkey’s military bases in Turkey?
Which of the following statements is true regarding Turkey’s military bases in Turkey?
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What social issue became a major concern in the USA during the 1960s?
What social issue became a major concern in the USA during the 1960s?
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Which political challenge did Turkey face in the year 1980?
Which political challenge did Turkey face in the year 1980?
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What prompted the growing resentment of the local population against immigrants in Europe during the mid-1970s?
What prompted the growing resentment of the local population against immigrants in Europe during the mid-1970s?
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Which organization was established in 1960 to support Turkish industrialization?
Which organization was established in 1960 to support Turkish industrialization?
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Which economic strategy was utilized in Turkey during the 1960s and 1970s to reduce dependency on foreign goods?
Which economic strategy was utilized in Turkey during the 1960s and 1970s to reduce dependency on foreign goods?
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What was a significant consequence of the OPEC oil crisis in the 1970s for Turkey?
What was a significant consequence of the OPEC oil crisis in the 1970s for Turkey?
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What characterized the production landscape of Turkish industry during the 1960s and 1970s?
What characterized the production landscape of Turkish industry during the 1960s and 1970s?
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What was one of the main objectives of the IMF program proposed in 1978 for Turkey?
What was one of the main objectives of the IMF program proposed in 1978 for Turkey?
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What was a key factor contributing to increasing strikes and workers' demonstrations in the second half of the 1970s in Turkey?
What was a key factor contributing to increasing strikes and workers' demonstrations in the second half of the 1970s in Turkey?
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How did the approach of the Turkish government toward industrialization during the 1960s and 1970s create dependency?
How did the approach of the Turkish government toward industrialization during the 1960s and 1970s create dependency?
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What was a notable social change in Germany during the 1970s related to workers?
What was a notable social change in Germany during the 1970s related to workers?
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What factor caused inefficiencies in state-run companies in Turkey during the 1960s and 1970s?
What factor caused inefficiencies in state-run companies in Turkey during the 1960s and 1970s?
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What triggered the military ultimatum of 12 March 1971?
What triggered the military ultimatum of 12 March 1971?
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What was one of the significant actions taken by the new government under Nihat Erim in 1971?
What was one of the significant actions taken by the new government under Nihat Erim in 1971?
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Which constitutional change occurred under Nihat Erim's government?
Which constitutional change occurred under Nihat Erim's government?
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What was a primary issue that the coalition governments from 1974 to 1980 faced?
What was a primary issue that the coalition governments from 1974 to 1980 faced?
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What was the nature of the conflicts that occurred between university students in the 1970s?
What was the nature of the conflicts that occurred between university students in the 1970s?
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How did the economic crisis in the 1970s affect Turkey's political climate?
How did the economic crisis in the 1970s affect Turkey's political climate?
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Which event is associated with the increase in political violence during the 1970s?
Which event is associated with the increase in political violence during the 1970s?
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What was a significant consequence of the martial law declared in April 1971?
What was a significant consequence of the martial law declared in April 1971?
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What demographic shift occurred in Turkey in the 1970s?
What demographic shift occurred in Turkey in the 1970s?
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What was a common perception of Turkish immigrants in Germany during the late 1970s?
What was a common perception of Turkish immigrants in Germany during the late 1970s?
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What was one of the factors leading to the rise in Turkish immigration to Germany?
What was one of the factors leading to the rise in Turkish immigration to Germany?
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What significant massacre events occurred against Alevi communities during the late 1970s?
What significant massacre events occurred against Alevi communities during the late 1970s?
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Who became the new leader of the Republican People's Party in 1972?
Who became the new leader of the Republican People's Party in 1972?
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What was a significant action taken by the National Unity Committee after the military coup in 1960?
What was a significant action taken by the National Unity Committee after the military coup in 1960?
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Which key feature was introduced in the 1961 Constitution of Türkiye?
Which key feature was introduced in the 1961 Constitution of Türkiye?
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Who became the new president of Türkiye following the 1960 military coup?
Who became the new president of Türkiye following the 1960 military coup?
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Which party emerged as a significant political force during the 1961 elections?
Which party emerged as a significant political force during the 1961 elections?
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What was one of the six new principles introduced in place of the pillars of Kemalism in the 1961 Constitution?
What was one of the six new principles introduced in place of the pillars of Kemalism in the 1961 Constitution?
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Which leader was known for emphasizing social justice and led to a new ideological orientation in the Republican People's Party?
Which leader was known for emphasizing social justice and led to a new ideological orientation in the Republican People's Party?
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What characterized the 1965 elections in Türkiye?
What characterized the 1965 elections in Türkiye?
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Which of the following best describes the Republican Peasants Nation Party, after it was renamed in 1969?
Which of the following best describes the Republican Peasants Nation Party, after it was renamed in 1969?
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What role did the National Security Council serve according to the 1961 constitution?
What role did the National Security Council serve according to the 1961 constitution?
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What was a major factor that contributed to Demirel's popularity in the 1960s?
What was a major factor that contributed to Demirel's popularity in the 1960s?
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What significant event occurred on 15-16 June 1970 in Istanbul?
What significant event occurred on 15-16 June 1970 in Istanbul?
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Which political movements became more visible during the politically diverse 1960s?
Which political movements became more visible during the politically diverse 1960s?
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What ideological confusion within the Republican People's Party hindered its progress in the 1960s?
What ideological confusion within the Republican People's Party hindered its progress in the 1960s?
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What was the primary focus of the Federation of Idea Clubs in universities during the 1960s?
What was the primary focus of the Federation of Idea Clubs in universities during the 1960s?
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Study Notes
History of the Republic of Turkey (1960s-1970s)
- 27 May 1960 Military Coup: The National Unity Committee (Milli Birlik Komitesi) took control of the country. The Democratic Party (DP) was shut down, and its leaders, including Adnan Menderes, Fatin Rüştü Zorlu, and Hasan Polatkan, were sentenced to death. Constitutional and corruption charges were brought against DP leaders. Purges occurred in the army and universities. Unrest and further coup attempts continued from 1960-1963. Cemal Gürsel became president. His advisor, Alparslan Türkeş, initially held influence but was removed from power for his radical opinions.
Return to Democracy (1961)
- An assembly with two houses was established: The National Unity Committee and House of Representatives.
- Law professors from Istanbul and Ankara Universities drafted a new constitution.
- A Constitutional Committee formed within the assembly. Balancing power between the national assembly and government was a key feature of the 1961 constitution. The Constitutional Court was also established.
- Advising on domestic and foreign policy, the National Security Council (Milli Güvenlik Konseyi) included the president, council of ministers, and major army commanders. The principle of the division of powers was introduced.
- Bicameralism (two chambers) was a critical aspect; the Republican Senate and the National Assembly were both required to pass legislation. Civil and collective liberties were broadened, and the six pillars of Kemalism from the 1924 Constitution were replaced with new principles. The rule of law, a welfare state, and respect for democracy and human rights replaced the previous emphasis on nationalism. Autonomy was granted to universities.
Politics in the 1960s
- 1961 Elections: The Justice Party (Adalet Partisi) emerged. Ragıp Gümüşpala was the initial leader, replaced by Süleyman Demirel. Heirs of the DP were successful in forming governments, but none were able to form a government without a coalition. A number of coalition governments ruled until 1965. İnönü led many of these. For the first time, the Workers' Party of Turkey (a socialist party) entered the Turkish parliament.
- 1965 Elections: Demirel and the Justice Party achieved power. Demirel was popular in rural areas but not with educated urban populations. The Justice Party consisted of people with various backgrounds, and Demirel's authority was not complete. He emphasized traditional values and anti-communism to gain support. Economic growth contributed to the party's popularity. Checks and balances in the political system differed from the DP era; significant change included independent universities and broadcasting, and the Constitutional Court's restriction on government authority.
- Rise of Bülent Ecevit: Bülent Ecevit gained influence in the Republican People's Party (RPP). Ecevit emphasized social justice and placed the party "left of center." He targeted votes from poor neighborhoods, the countryside, and the working class. He became the party's secretary-general in 1966. Internal ideological conflicts within the RPP regarding Ecevit's program and broader issues of ideological confusion within the party impacted the party's performance.
- Political Diversity in the 1960s: The decade was diverse with a variety of political parties and ideological stances. Radical left and right political groups became noticeable. Social mobility increased with people migrating from rural villages to urban centers. Growth in the number of workers, student movements in cities, were also important social dynamics. 1968 marked important student movements and anti-war protests worldwide, particularly in the United States, France, and the invasion of Czechoslovakia. Universities became significant centers of political activity.
Leftist and Rightist Movements (1960s-1970s)
- Leftist Movements (1960s-1970s): The Workers' Party of Turkey gained popularity among intellectuals; Mehmet Ali Aybar was the first chairman. Increasing periodicals and journals explored the diverse variations of socialism. Idea Clubs (Fikir Kulüpleri) in universities increased in number and influence. "Revolutionary Youth" organized in universities (Dev-Genç). Leftist groups debated the role of the army in future revolutions, the feasibility of democratic socialism, Turkey's readiness for change, and the use of force in implementing socialist goals.
- Rightist Movements (1960s-1970s): The Republican Peasants Nation Party (Cumhuriyetçi Köylü Millet Partisi) was established, with Alparslan Türkeş as the chairman in 1965. Later, the party's name changed to the Nationalist Action Party (Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi) in 1969. This party was Nationalist, anti-leftist, and Pan-Turkist in ideology. Emphasizing Islam, the Nine Lights (Dokuz Işık) document outlined the part's principles. The party had a youth organization—the Hearths of the Ideal (Ülkü Ocakları). Other key right-wing figures emerged, including Necmettin Erbakan, who established the National Order Party (Milli Nizam Partisi) in 1970, criticizing Demirel and government biases toward large businesses and foreign interests.
Political Violence in the 1970s
- Bloody conflicts arose between rightist and leftist university students.
- Ethnic and sectarian conflicts emerged during this period.
- The escalating economic crisis significantly worsened the political climate.
- The government protected rightist groups, with support among the police and military. Martial law continued in major cities. Key events, like the 1 May 1977 clashes in Taksim Square, the Maraş and Çorum massacres (1978-1980 targeting Alevi communities) and killings of various political leaders, marked the era's widespread violence.
Social Transformation (1970s)
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Industrialization and Migration: Increased industrialization led to mass migration from rural areas to urban centers. The development of shantytowns (gecekondu) exemplified the rapid and unplanned urbanization process that occurred. Many migrants did not find employment in major industries.
- Immigration to Germany: Germany's post-war economic and industrial recovery led to immigrant Turkish laborers seeking employment. Most immigrants moved straight from villages and towns to German cities, and struggled with cultural adjustment. Turkish workers initially planned to return, but Turkey's economic and political crises in the 1970s discouraged this. Eventually, families joined the worker immigrants in Germany.
- Illegal and unplanned immigration became a problem because of economic crises in both Europe and Turkey. Resentment against immigrants also increased among the local European population. - Workers' Movements: Worker's unions gained strength achieving victories in pay negotiations, but rival unions competed for membership. The decade saw increased social security policies for workers and restrictions on working hours and child labor. Economic stagnation in the later 1970s contributed to rising unemployment and fueled worker strikes and demonstrations.
Economic Transformations (1960s-1970s)
- State Planning: The economy became more planned; the State Planning Organization (Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı) was established in 1960. The organization developed five-year plans to boost Turkish industrialization, with different political parties exhibiting differing approaches on the degree and efficacy of state planning.
- Import Substitution: Replacing imports with domestically produced goods helped build and support local Turkish industries and reduced reliance on foreign products. Governmental policies, particularly tax reductions, financial incentives, tariffs, and credits to investors and farmers, helped to boost local industries and revitalize domestic markets. However, relationships between foreign and Turkish investors became an issue, and reliance on foreign expertise and finance created a degree of dependence.
- State-run Companies: State-run companies dominated industrial production in the decade, but most struggles with competing in international markets, and were primarily geared toward the domestic market, not export. Political considerations often outweighed economic concerns in staffing decisions and company policies.
- Economic Challenges: Constant trade deficits and increased energy burdens from the OPEC crisis in the later 1970s, rising inflation and the rise of black markets were contributing factors to financial instability. Negotiations with the IMF and other institutions began to seek economic reforms. The 1978 reforms aimed primarily at cutting state expenditure and limiting government-provided support, and adjusting interest rate policies.
International Relations (1960s-1970s)
- NATO and the USA: Turkey relied heavily on the US for financial support, fostering a close relationship within the framework of NATO membership throughout the 1960s-70s.
- Cyprus Crisis: There were significant problems between the US and Turkey, including the Cyprus Question, regarding the Turkish minority. The US also exerted influence concerning the use of American weapons in the ongoing conflicts. In 1974, the US discouraged intervention and did not allow Turkey to use American weapons within the conflict. Further conflicts, particularly with Greece, erupted in 1974, and continued to be a major point of contention.
- Opium Crisis: The US pressured Turkey to cease opium production, but as it was a significant part of the local economy, Turkey struggled with this and later banned it as part of diplomatic agreements.
Turkey in 1980
- A series of overlapping crises including economic, political, and social conflicts brought Turkey to a military coup. The country faced notable political turmoil and ongoing conflicts between political groups. Ineffective party politics and the breakdown of the political system led to the coup.
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Test your knowledge on crucial events and political dynamics in Turkey from the 1960s to the 1980s. This quiz covers leftist movements, military interventions, and socio-economic developments that shaped modern Turkey. Dive into the complexities of Turkish history during these transformative decades.