Object-Oriented Programming Using C++ PDF

## Object-Oriented Programming Using C++ ### A Look at Object-Oriented Programming - Object-oriented programming treats data as the most critical element in program design. - It ties data and functions together to operate on it. - It protects data from other functions. **Figure 2.3: Typical Struc...

## Object-Oriented Programming Using C++ ### A Look at Object-Oriented Programming - Object-oriented programming treats data as the most critical element in program design. - It ties data and functions together to operate on it. - It protects data from other functions. **Figure 2.3: Typical Structure of an Object-Oriented Program** - Object-oriented programming decomposes a problem into entities called objects. - It builds data and functions around these objects. - The data of an object can be accessed only by functions associated with it. - Functions belonging to different objects can communicate with each other. **Key Characteristics of Object-Oriented Programming** - **Emphasis on data rather than functions.** - **Programs are divided into sets of related objects.** - **Data structures are designed to characterize the objects.** - **Functions that operate on the data of an object are tied together with the data structure.** - **Data of an object is hidden from external functions.** - **Objects communicate with each other through functions.** - **Employs a bottom-up approach to program design.** ### Basic Concepts of Object-Oriented Programming - Object-oriented programming is built on abstraction, encapsulation, data hiding, inheritance, overloading, and polymorphism. - Object-oriented programming can be defined as a method of implementation in which programs are organized as cooperative collections of objects. - Each object represents an instance of some class, and each class is a member of a hierarchy of classes united via inheritance relationships. - Object-oriented programming uses objects as basic building blocks. - Each object is an instance of some class, and classes are related to each other through inheritance. ### Concepts in Object-Oriented Programming - **Objects:** Objects are instances of classes. - **Classes:** Classes are blueprints for creating objects. - **Abstraction**: Separating the interface (what the object does) from the implementation (how the object does it). - **Encapsulation**: Binding data and functions together to protect data from external access. - **Data Hiding:** The ability of an object to hide its data from external access. - **Inheritance**: The ability of a new class to inherit properties and behaviors from an existing class. - **Overloading**: The ability to give multiple meanings to the same operator or function. - **Polymorphism**: The ability of an object to take on multiple forms. - **Dynamic Binding**: The process of linking a function call to the function definition at runtime. - **Message Passing**: The process of communication between objects where an object sends a message to another object. ### Advantages of Object-Oriented Programming - **Structured approach**: Can handle the complexity of large and complex software system. - **Object representation**: Allows for a more natural representation of the world, which is composed of objects. - **Data encapsulation**: Separates the procedural and representational specifications from the implementation. - **Modular programming**: Allows programs to be broken down into smaller, more manageable units. - **Reusability**: Allows existing code to be reused in new programs. - **Extensibility**: Allows new features to be added without modifying existing code. - **Flexibility**: Allows for more flexibility in program design. - **Maintainability**: Makes programs easier to maintain. - **Productivity**: Increases the productivity of programmers. - **Code sharing**: Promotes code sharing between programmers. ### A Quick Recap - Object-oriented programming is a powerful paradigm for developing software systems. - Understanding the basic concepts of object-oriented programming is essential for developing effective object-oriented programs. ### Computer - A computer is a programmable machine that operates on data. - A computer is a tool for a wide range of activities. **Basic Characteristics about Computer** - **Speed**: Computers work very fast. - **Accuracy**: Computers are highly accurate. - **Diligence**: Computers are tireless, never make mistakes due to tiredness or lack of concentration. - **Versatility**: Computers can perform a variety of tasks. - **Power of Remembering**: Computers can store and recall any amount of information. - **Storage**: Computers have an in-built memory where they can store data. **Limitations of computers** - Computers need clear and complete instructions to perform a task. - Computers cannot think. - Computers cannot learn by experience. - Computers cannot make decisions. - Computers do not have feelings. **Block Diagram Of Computer System** - **Input**: The process of entering data into the computer system. - **Storage**: The process of saving data and instructions. - **Processing**: The process of performing calculations based on the instructions and data. - **Output**: The process of producing results from the data. - **Control**: The process of coordinating the activities of the various units of the computer. **Functional Units** - **Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):** Performs arithmetical and logical operations. - **Control Unit (CU):** Coordinates the activities of the various units of the computer. - **Central Processing Unit (CPU):** The combination of the ALU and the CU. **Classification of Computers** - **Supercomputers:** The most powerful type of computer. - **Mainframes:** Used in large organizations to process data and manage resources. - **Minicomputers:** Used for specific tasks in industrial or scientific environments. - **Microcomputers:** Used by individuals for a variety of tasks. **Programming Languages** - **Machine Language:** Computers understand only binary code. - **Assembly Language:** Uses mnemonics to represent binary code. - **High-Level Language:** More user-friendly and machine-independent. **Operating System** - An operating system (OS) acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware. - It performs essential tasks such as file management, memory handling, process management, and I/O device management. **Algorithm** - An algorithm is a set of step-by-step instructions for solving a specific problem. - An algorithm should be unambiguous, finite, and feasible. **Flowchart** - A flowchart is a diagrammatic representation of a program. - Flowcharts use symbols to represent different operations in a program. **C Tokens** - C tokens are the smallest meaningful elements of a C program. - The compiler understands C tokens. - C tokens are classified into keywords, identifiers, constants, and operators. **Keywords** - Keywords are predefined words that have fixed meanings in C. - Keywords cannot be changed. - Keywords must be written in lowercase. **Identifiers** - Identifiers are user-defined names for variables, functions, arrays, etc. - Identifiers must begin with a letter or underscore (\_). - Identifiers can contain letters, digits, and underscores. - Identifiers cannot be keywords. **Constants** - Constants are fixed values in a C program. - Constants can be numeric, character, string, or enumeration. **Operators** - Operators are symbols that perform operations in a C program. - Operators are classified as arithmetic, relational, logical, bitwise, assignment, and miscellaneous operators. **Switch Statement** - The switch statement tests the value of a given variable against a list of case values. - If a match is found, the block of statements associated with that case is executed. **Loops** - Loops are used to repeatedly execute a block of code. - Types of loops in C: `for`, `while`, and `do-while`. - The `for` loop is used to iterate a fixed number of times. - The `while` loop is used to iterate an indefinite number of times based on a condition. - The `do-while` loop is used to execute a block of code at least once before checking a condition. **Nested Loops** - Nested loops are used to create more complex iterations. - Nested loops are typically used for tasks such as iterating through multidimensional arrays. **Function** - A function is a block of code that performs a specific task. - Functions can be reused in different parts of a program. - Types of functions: `built-in` and `user-defined`. **Built-in Functions** - Built-in functions are predefined functions in C. - Built-in functions are defined in header files. - Examples of built-in functions: `printf()`, `scanf()`, `sqrt()`. **User-Defined Functions** - User-defined functions are defined by the programmer. - User-defined functions can be used to perform custom tasks. **Elements of User-Defined Functions** - **Function Definition**: The actual implementation of the function. - **Function Call**: The code that executes the function. - **Function Declaration**: A prototype of the function that describes its return type, name, and parameters. **Function Call** - A function can be called by specifying its name and providing arguments. **Function Declaration** - A function declaration provides information about the function's return type, name, and parameters. This markdown file contains all the important topics in object-oriented programming with visual diagrams covering the concepts. All the topics have been structured using headings, lists, and tables to make the information easier to understand and navigate.