Psychology 150 Study Guide PDF

**Week 1 Study Guide** - - - **Study Questions\ **Please note that this is an old (1968) article and, thus, some of the language used is antiquated and no longer deemed socially appropriate by most people. 1\. Science is more than what? It is what? (28, 1) Sagan emphasizes that science is...

**Week 1 Study Guide** - - - **Study Questions\ **Please note that this is an old (1968) article and, thus, some of the language used is antiquated and no longer deemed socially appropriate by most people. 1\. Science is more than what? It is what? (28, 1) Sagan emphasizes that science is more than a body of knowledge; it is a way of thinking. It's not just a collection of facts but a systematic method for understanding the world through evidence and skepticism. 2\. Think about what Sagan is describing at the bottom of 28, 1\--consider the state of the world now, with social media, etc. Sagan's point about the ease of spreading misinformation is even more relevant today with the rise of social media, which accelerates the dissemination of unverified claims and conspiracy theories, creating a world saturated with \"noise\" that makes scientific literacy and critical thinking even more vital. 3\. What is the recipe for disaster? (28, 2) The recipe for disaster is a society that combines advanced technology with a lack of scientific literacy. Sagan warns of the dangers of powerful tools being in the hands of people who do not understand their implications or limitations. 4\. What can\'t science do? But what can it do? Explain. (30, 0) Science cannot provide moral guidance or answer existential questions of meaning. However, it can offer tools for discovery, problem-solving, and improving the human condition by explaining natural phenomena and providing evidence-based solutions. 5\. How is science self-correcting? (See 30, 2-4,\--and also 34, 1\--but this is more of a thought question.) Science is self-correcting because it relies on peer review, replication of experiments, and the willingness to revise or discard theories when new evidence emerges. This iterative process ensures that errors are addressed over time. 6\. We cannot hope for certainty; instead, we must hope for what? (31, 1) What is one of the great commandments of science? Explain the alternative. (31, 2) Why is science not always satisfying to many people? (31, 3) Instead of certainty, we must hope for clarity, approximation, and continual refinement of knowledge. One of the great commandments of science is to \"question everything,\" as opposed to blindly accepting authority or dogma. This can be unsatisfying to many people because humans often crave absolute answers and simple narratives. 7\. Explain the statement, science \"delivers the goods (32, 3), especially in terms of the comparisons Sagan makes between what science can do and what pseudoscience, religion, etc. can do. (32, 3-33, 1) Sagan highlights how science has tangibly improved our lives, from medicine to technology, in ways pseudoscience and religion cannot. He contrasts the measurable outcomes of scientific inquiry with the unverified promises of pseudoscience. 8\. Summarize Sagan\'s explanation of how adherence to science is not the same as \"worshipping at the altar\" of science. (33, 2) Sagan clarifies that valuing science is not about blind reverence but about appreciating its methodical approach to understanding reality. It's about embracing evidence and being open to change, not dogmatism. 9\. Note Sagan\'s description of the scientific community and how it operates to maintain scientific rigor. (34, 2-35, 1) Sagan describes the scientific community as rigorous and self-regulating, with mechanisms like peer review and replication to ensure the integrity of findings. The community values skepticism and transparency, which help maintain its credibility. 10\. Review the passage from Einstein\'s description of special relativity (38, 1-39, 0). What does Sagan want you to take away from this passage? (39, 0-40, )) Sagan uses Einstein's explanation to illustrate the elegance and simplicity that can emerge from deep scientific understanding. The takeaway is the transformative power of science to reveal profound truths about the universe. 11\. Explain the statement, \"the metaphysicist has no laboratory.\" (40, 2) This statement shows the difference between science and metaphysics. Science relies on empirical evidence and experimentation, whereas metaphysics deals with abstract ideas that cannot be tested or observed. 12\. Summarize Sagan\'s four main reasons for making a concerted effort to convey science. (40, 3-42, 0) 1. 2. 3. 4. **\****Numbers in parentheses indicate the main page (before comma) and paragraph (after comma) numbers where the information can be found. If a paragraph starts on a previous page, it is denoted as \"0.\" A \"1\" refers to the first complete paragraph on a given page.* **Week 2 Study Guide** - - - - - **Study Questions\ **Please note that this is an old (1968) article and, thus, some of the language used is antiquated and no longer deemed socially appropriate by most people. 1\. Explain the differences between basic and applied research. (91, 4-92, 0) **Basic research:** Focuses on understanding fundamental principles and theories without immediate practical application. **Applied research:** Directly addresses real-world issues and socially significant behaviors, aiming for practical outcomes that benefit society. **Example for Clarification:** Basic research might study how reinforcement works in general, while applied research might focus on using reinforcement to improve classroom behavior in children. 2\. \"Applied\" is not determined by the procedures used; instead, it is determined by what? (91, 3) \"Applied\" is determined by the **importance of the behavior under investigation** to the individual or society. 3\. What is pragmatism? (You\'ll need to look this up.) How are behaviorism and pragmatism related? (93, 1) **Definition of Pragmatism:** A philosophical approach that evaluates theories or beliefs based on their practical applications and outcomes. **Relation to Behaviorism:** Behaviorism focuses on observable and measurable behavior, aligning with pragmatism's emphasis on practical results. Both prioritize what can be **done** or **accomplished** over theoretical discussions. **Example:** In behaviorism, success is determined by whether a behavior changes in response to interventions, aligning with pragmatism's goal of achieving tangible results. 4\. Explain the following statement using an original example: \"The relevant question is not what he can say, but what he can do.\" (93, 1) **Explanation:** This highlights the emphasis on observable, measurable actions rather than verbal or self-reported abilities. **Original Example:** A child may verbally say they know how to tie their shoes, but the key measure of learning is whether they can actually perform the task. 5\. Why don\'t applied researchers have the luxury of choosing responses (behavior) that are easily quantifiable? (93, 2) Applied research focuses on behaviors that are **socially significant** and directly relevant to real-world contexts. These behaviors are often complex and not always easily measurable. **Example:** Teaching social skills to children with autism involves nuances like tone of voice, facial expressions, and body language, which are harder to quantify than simple physical actions. 6\. Explain the following statement: \"A useful tactic in evaluating the behavioral attributes of a study is to ask not merely, ask not merely, was behavior changed? but also, whose behavior?\" (93, 3) - - Week 3 Study Guide - - - **Study Questions\ ** 1\. What is behavior? What is it not? **Behavior** is anything a person does that can be observed, measured, and has an impact on the environment. **Behavior is not** a label (e.g., \"aggressive\"), a trait (e.g., \"intelligent\"), or an internal state (e.g., \"feeling anxious\")---it must be an observable action. 2\. What is a \"dimension\" of behavior? Identify and define the four behavioral dimensions. **Dimensions of behavior** refer to measurable aspects of a behavior: - - - - 3\. Explain the role of observation in defining behavior. Observation ensures behaviors are **objectively measured** rather than inferred. It allows for **consistent data collection** and helps determine whether interventions are effective. 4\. Explain the relevance of behavior as movement through space and time, especially in terms of the effects on the environment. Behavior is an **interaction with the environment** and occurs in a **continuous stream** over time. It produces **environmental effects**, meaning it changes something in the surroundings (e.g., speaking results in sound, pressing a button activates a device). 5\. What does it mean to say that behavior is lawful? **Behavior is systematic** and follows predictable patterns based on **antecedents and consequences**. It is influenced by **reinforcement, punishment, and stimulus control**, rather than occurring randomly. 6\. Distinguish between overt and covert behaviors. **Overt behavior**: Observable actions (e.g., running, speaking). **Covert behavior**: Internal events (e.g., thinking, feeling) that cannot be directly observed. 7\. What are the main features of a behavioral definition? What should not be a part of the definition? A good behavioral definition is: - - - **What should not be included?** - - 8\. Summarize the main point of the section, \"Labels Are Not Behavior.\" Labels (e.g., "lazy," "hyperactive") **do not describe specific actions** and can be misleading. Defining behaviors **in measurable terms** is essential for effective intervention. 9\. A good behavioral definition should allow two different people to do what? Explain. Two different people should be able to **observe the same behavior and agree on whether it occurred**. This ensures **interobserver reliability**, meaning definitions are clear enough to be measured consistently. 10\. What is social validity? How is it related to the \"Applied\" section of the Baer, Wolf, and Risley (1968) article? **Social validity** refers to whether a behavior change is **meaningful and beneficial** to individuals and society. In Baer, Wolf, & Risley (1968), \"Applied\" means research should focus on **socially significant behaviors** that improve people's lives. Week 4 Study Guide - - - - - **Study Questions\ ** 1. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. 2. i. - - - - 3. - - - 4. j. i. ii. iii. **Original examples:** - - 5. - - - 6. - - - - 7. To use the decision model: 1. 2. 3. 4. **Week 5 Study Guide** - - - - - **Study Questions\ ** 1. 2. a. b. c. 3. d. 4. #### **I. Observer Reactivity** - - #### **II. Observer Drift** - - - - #### **III. Complexity of the Behavior** - - #### **IV. Observer Expectancy** - - #### **V. Observer Fatigue** - - #### **VI. Feedback and Incentives** - - - 5. - - 6. - - - - 7. - - - 8. Kazdin highlights that reliability estimates can be misleading if the behavior being measured is highly predictable. High agreement may simply reflect the predictability of the behavior rather than the accuracy of observations. - - 9. Kazdin recommends using multiple independent observers to improve data accuracy. - - - - 10. - - 11. - 12. - - - 13. - -