Psychology Chapter 1-4 PDF

CH.1 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?  PSYCHOLOGY! Psychology is the scientific discipline concerned with behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state, and external environment. Psychological science is based on empirical...

CH.1 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?  PSYCHOLOGY! Psychology is the scientific discipline concerned with behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state, and external environment. Psychological science is based on empirical ____________. evidence  WHAT ISN’T PSYCHOLOGY? “Pop psych” and pseudoscience are often mistake for empirical based psychology. Fortune telling, astrology, numerology ect…. Are all common forms of pseudoscience. Why do people still believe in comforters , pseudoscience and psychic abilities?  SCIENTIFIC LITERACY ______________: Critical Thinking The ability and willingness to assess claims and make objective judgments on the basis of well-supported reasons - signs of Diase > and evidence rather than emotion or anecdote. Increasingly important as we sort through the barrage of information in the digital age 5 STEPS TO BEING A GOOD CRITICAL THINKER __________________________________ "is this true?" Critical and creative thinking begins with wondering Why. What is one kind of question that most exasperates caregivers of young children? “Why” questions.  5 STEPS TO BEING A GOOD CRITICAL THINKER Define Your Terms The next step is to frame your question in clear and concrete terms. N vague As Vague or poorly defined terms in a question produce misleading or incomplete answers. -  5 STEPS TO BEING A GOOD CRITICAL THINKER Analyze Assumptions and Biases Assumption ______________ are beliefs that are taken for granted. If we do not recognize our own assumptions and those of other people, our ability to judge an argument’s merits may be impaired. When an assumption or belief keeps us from considering the evidence fairly, it becomes a _____________. bids  5 STEPS TO BEING A GOOD CRITICAL THINKER Examine the Evidence A critical thinker bases conclusions on evidence, avoiding oversimplification, resisting easy generalizations, and rejecting either/or thinking Ex "All Noons. are bad. " 5 STEPS TO BEING A GOOD CRITICAL THINKER __________________________ Weigh Conclusions One of the hardest lessons of learning to think critically is how to live- with uncertainty. In weighing conclusions, it is important for critical thinkers to tolerate uncertainty and consider other interpretations.  etant not SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES Dates Scientific thought has two fundamental beliefs: ▪ Empiricism: philosophical tenet that knowledge comes through experience ▪ Determinism: the belief that all events are governed by lawful, cause-and- e effect relationships Early history: in favow of superstitions over science Zeitgeist: refers to a general set of beliefs of a particular culture at a specific time in history ▪ Delayed the science of psychology ▪ Materialism: the belief that humans, and other living beings, are composed exclusively of physical matter- scientific  BLUNDER YEARS From Ancient times though to the early 1800’s there were some important insights made but they tended to be flawed. However, they did not use rigorous empirical methods. As such, they made serious errors in the description and explanation of behavior. thought ~ One terrible blunder is the case of phrenology. bumps mine a brain More recently, we had the Labotomobile! personality , ·stirredtheprair around disrupt tal lobe to "cure" mental ilsa  THE BEGINNINGS OF PSYCHOLOGY Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) ▪ Setup first laboratory dedicated to studying human behaviour ▪ Used ___________: ↑ introspections a process of ‘looking within’ to describe psychological sensations Not reliable · volunteers · subjective & *  INTROSPECTION AND STRUCTURALISM Structuralism: analyzing conscious experience by breaking it down into basic elements and to * Unreliable understand how these elements work together Red Shiny Juicy Apple Round Tart  FUNCTIONALISM: THE BEGINNINGS OF PSYCHOLOGY William James (1842-1910) ▪ Wrote first modern textbook in psychology, The Principles of Psychology ▪ Influenced by Darwin’s evolutionary principles X For Proposed ____________: wit functionalismthe study of the ? purpose and function of behaviour and conscious experience - Lacks reliability  ink agn THE WORK OF FREUD & Made ppl Sigmund Freud’s theory of ____________ psychoanalysis emphasized aware unconscious causes of psychological problems. ~ Freud argued that conscious awareness is merely the tip of a mental iceberg. Leading to his idea of Ego, Superego, and ID. you "angel/devil" urges Freudian concepts were not an overnight sensation, but evolved - into a broad theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy. Stillmakesous However, they were rejected by a majority of empirically oriented psychologists. urges  training Ex: Training a dog reward 7 not montant as I - health Associate something w servable ↓ else - something - , Ex bell" food BEHAVIOURISM: CLASSIC VS OPERANT CONDITIONING. a a see can't study Can't PILLARS OF MODERNS PSYCHOLOGY  THE BIOLOGICAL PILAR The biological pillar emphasizes bodily events associated with actions, thoughts, and feelings, as well as genetic contributions to behavior. electrical impulses hormones stricturaevent brain’s ability to sense sights, sounds, smells, tastes, touches Biological psychologists study how these events interact with events in the external environment to produce perceptions, memories, and behavior.  inside the brain THE COGNITIVE PILLAR = The cognitive pillar emphasizes how people: reason and remember thought process comprehend language tendencies solve problems explain experiences acquire moral standards Cognitive research explores phenomena such as: insight false memory “thinking” outside of conscious awareness  childhood focused th DEVELOPMENTAL PILLAR - Environment on Y Birth-Death The developmental perspective explores ways in which preferences, attitudes, identities, and social patterns change (develop) over one’s lifetime. Developmental researchers: ask questions about how we come to acquire the skills and tendencies we have now, and, how these processes continue to evolve throughout the rest of our lives.  SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY PILLAR The social/personality pillar examines the power of different situations to shape people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Reminds us of the important influence cultural experiences, roles, and rules have on nearly everything we do: perceive the world express joy or grief think through problems treat our friends and enemies  common MENTAL AND PHYSICAL HEALTH PILLAR - An important perspective in psychological science focuses on healthy functioning and addressing threats to it. A wide range of factors encourage mental and physical well-being—social support, emotion regulation, good nutrition, effective coping styles... As well as common obstacles to feeling healthy—stress, racism, other forms of discrimination, addiction, and imbalances in the chemicals that transmit messages from one neuron to the next. finding abnormalities mentalresa -  WHAT DO PSYCHOLOGISTS DO? Professors ↑ Academic/Research Psychologists Clinical Psychologists Psychologists in Other Settings Specialize in areas of research such as these: Do psychotherapy and sometimes research; may work Do research or serve as consultants to institutions Human development in any of these settings: on such issues as the following: Cognition Private practice Sports Emotion Mental health clinics Advertising and consumer issues Education Hospitals Organizational problems Industrial/organizational psychology Research laboratories Environmental issues Physiological psychology/neuroscience Colleges and universities Public policy and legal issues Sensation and perception K-12 schools Opinion polls Social psychology Criminal justice system Military training Personality Website user experiences skills Animal behavior ies/buisness transferabl  TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH -Bigger theories vague ___________: Basic Psychology The study of psychological issues , I for the primary purpose of expanding scientific knowledge rather than specific practical gos ter applications. ___________: Applied Psychology The study of psychological issues for the primary purpose of address a specific real-world problem.  PSYCHOLOGICAL PRACTICE -masters __________ counseling psychologists help people deal with problems of everyday life such as test anxiety, family conflict, low job motivation. ___________ School psychologists work with parents, teachers, students to enhance students’ performance and resolve emotional difficulties. -PhD Dr , > ____________ Clinical psychologists diagnose, treat, and study mental or emotional problems; are trained to do psychotherapy with severely disturbed people, as well as those who are troubled or unhappy or who want to lean to handle their problems better.  A person who does psychotherapy; may have anything from no degree to an Psychotherapist advanced professional degree; the term is unregulated. Clinical psychologist recomend Diagnoses, treats, and/or studies mental and emotional problems, both mild and ↑ severe; has a Ph.D., an Ed.D., or a Psy.D. Psychoanalyst similar Practices psychoanalysis; has specific training in this approach after an advanced degree (usually, but not always, an M.D. or a Ph.D.); may treat any kind of T emotional disorder or pathology Psychiatrist Specialized Dr. Does work similar to that of a clinical psychologist, but is likely to take a more - biological approach; has a medical degree (M.D.) with a specialty in psychiatry Licensed clinical social worker (L C SW); Treats common individual and family problems, but may also deal with more marriage, family, and child counselor (M serious problems such as addiction or abuse; licensing requirements vary, but F C C) generally has at least an M.A. in psychology or social work CH.2 HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS DO RESEARCH  THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD : Evolution - ex _________: Theory an organized system of assumptions and principles that purports to explain certain phenomena and how they are related. Evidence Built from hypotheses Can be updated with new information  SCIENTIFIC METHOD _________: hypothesis a testable prediction about processes that can be observed and around too. measured. from theory other way Loading… a , other · compliment · each leads to prediction Do NOT prove hypotheses · " not white Must be __________ "are. falsifiable swans some want to disprove ‘All swans are white’ a vs ‘all men are mortal’ > - can't wrong prove Must be stated in precise and relavent term precise and relevant  terms. SCIENTIFIC METHOD talking abt SAME thing > so we are - ____________ operational definitions specify how the concepts in question are to be observed and measured. Examples: “Anxiety” might be defined operationally as a score on an anxiety questionnaire. “Threatening situation” as the threat of an electric shock.  SCIENTIFIC METHOD Theories NOT the same as opinions biased , not empirical Example : Flat earth no evidence. Loading… All theories are NOT equally plausible Validity NOT determined by number of people who believe it to be true more people believe* Five  Large Test CYCLE OF SCIENTIFIC NS Yes or opp is RESEARCH not true  WILLINGNESS TO MAKE RISKY PREDICTIONS Scientists must state an idea in such a way that it can be refuted, or disproved by counterevidence. The principle of falsifiability instructs scientists to design studies in such a way that evidence can either: confirm, or disconfirm the existence of a phenomenon Confirmation bias: the tendency to look for or only pay attention to information that confirms one’s beliefs and to ignore or reject evidence that contradicts our beliefs. Only see our side,  all your TRANSPARENCY IN honestfindings RESEARCH Researchers need to be able tell others how they tested ideas and what the results were, with complete honest. All results + data is accessible Peer review ensures that the work lives up to accepted scientific standards. find flukes , double check _________, Replication or repeating, of previous studies is an essential part of the scientific process because sometimes a finding turns out to be a fluke.  SAMPLING test hypothesis ____________: Representative sample A group of individuals, selected from a population for study, that matches the population on important characteristics. Researchers must often use “convenience” samples—typically undergraduate students. Caution is needed when generalizing with convenience samples!!!!! sample-limistateopulation  SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS: OBJECTIVITY ____________: objective are the measure of an entity or measurements behaviour that, within an allowed margin of error, is consistent across instruments and observers __________: Variable refers to the object, concept, or event being measured. Behavioural measures Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Blood or saliva Self-reporting  ! Multiple OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS - Operational definitions: Statements that describe the procedures (or operations) and/or specific measures Loading… that are used to record observations  RELIABILITY Reliability: is when a measure provides consistent and stable answers across multiple observations and points in time later day/ two test-retest reliability - Test-retest reliability a if same , Myers-briggs test automaticallydoaa Alternate-forms reliability Memory test perspective different people/ Inter-rater reliability behavioral lookinge Same measurement  VALIDITY Accuracy in the Measurement Process aer predictabilit actual content  CASE STUDIES Typesof tiny no has example raising twinsu id a dog Case studies are detailed descriptions of particular individuals being usually studied or treated. include experience one-on-one , , detailed , used for trauma, They are individualized and illustrate psychological principles in a way that abstract generalizations and cold statistics never can. hand to gueralize , However, there are drawbacks: individuals , so Info is often missed or hard to interpret Observers have biases that affect which facts are reported or overlooked One person is usually not representative of an entire group, limiting case studies usefulness for deriving general principles of behaviour. OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES Observational Studies are a descriptive method, in which the research systematically measures and record behaviour, taking care to avoid intruding on those being observed. Two main kinds of observational studies 1) ________ naturalisticObservation: is used to find out how animals and people act in their normal environments. hide watching , 2) _________ Observation: observation Laboratory allows more control and the use of special equipment. zo muchContiseferent  Imperial PSYCHOLOGY TESTS Objective tests, or inventories, measure: beliefs feelings Trustable. behaviors -not _________ projective tests can tap unconscious feelings or motives. Personality tests, achievement tests, vocational aptitude tests are used in industry, education, the military, and other professions. All good tests have excellent reliability and validity!!  SURVEYS Surveys are questionnaires or interviews that ask people directly about their experiences, attitudes or opinions. Good for getting lots of data but have lots of issues: calls , mail Low response rates denied only people that willanswer we a populati Unrepresentative bias People might lie or misinterpret the question Hold inaccurate perceptions of their own behaviour  CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH This research involves measuring the degree of association between Two Variables. Every correlation has a direction (Positive or negative) and a magnitude between -1.0 - to +1.0. * DIRECTION The Magnitude is the STRENGTH of the relationship. The closer to 0 the smaller the correlation (less related) the close to -1 or 1 the larger the correlation (more related)  t + t -  - tribution biggerdis X 4 = x = Y doesn't cause ! each er  CAUTIONS OF CORRELATIONS illusionary ____________: correlation Relationships that really exist only in the mind rather than in reality. Third variable problem = correlation does not equal causation. a nigh - high , not causing =  Experimental Research forgal change nature es Experimental group: only if wires receives special treatment I in regard to the IV dependent Control group: similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment value independent Random Assignment: a technique for dividing samples into two or more groups Experimenter Control: Variables are manipulated Experimental Research a canchang f Independent Variable: Presumed cause impact - Dependent Variable: Presumed effect too much control not Confounding variables: variables outside of the researchers = realistic control that might affect the results. find mid point.  Experimental Researchdoesn't compar a sets - ex. has Between-subjects design: Participants Control Experimental who are in different groups are compared vs. A large sample and random assignment makes equal groups likely, but not guaranteed Within-subjects design: All participants respond to all types of Control Experimental your the stimuli or experience all experimental control and experimental conditions Order effects diff tests different difficulties = vs. ↳ counter balance Separating measurements in time a day , variable effect Counterbalancing later the in dist days conte fatigue eat more ,  ADVANTAGES OF EXPERIMENTS You can determine causation!!!! Used “experimental groups” that receive the same drug as the control, which is called a placebo. apersonthinking somethingisSupposed to a work - Single-blind and double-blind studies can be used to prevent the results placebo & tell participant - no from being affected by: don't bids no articipant - researcher + p the expectations of the participants the expectations of the experimenter (experimenter effects)  LIMITATIONS OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Participants, often students, may not represent larger population Researcher has artificial situation; participants may act in ways they wouldn’t otherwise ___________ field research allows study of behavior in more natural context, such as school and workplace DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Descriptive statistics: are a set of techniques used to organize, summarize, and interpret data Frequency median , mode Central tendency > - mean , Variability FREQUENCY test D on The number of observations that fall within a certain category or range of scores. Symmetrical. Left Loading… mean-median Right casinnet g floor effect Central Tendency Central tendency: a measure of the central point of a distribution (mean, median, mode) Variability it covers space. how much out ? now spread The degree to which scores are dispersed in a distribution. LOW · we want > more variability - same data  STANDARD DEVIATION A measure of variability around the mean or the average distance from the mean. The standard deviation is used as it can turn any unit into a standardize score to be used. E.g, height, weight, memory accuracy, ect.. depends on variability I 15 15 is it is 15  Same Mean, Different Meaning * wide distribution variability more stand der. bigger INFERENTIAL STATISTICS Psychological scientists use inferential statistics to rigorously assess potential differences or relationships in data. Significance tests (Also hypothesis test) tell the researchers how likely it is that the results of a study occurred merely by chance. A growing number of psychologists and other researchers use a statistical formula that creates a _____________. confidence intreval not important  HYPOTHESIS TESTING Null Hypothesis: Assumes that any differences between groups. not possible opposite is are due to chance (Control Group). Prove interested in Experimental/Alternative Hypothesis: Assumes any differences are due to a variable controlled by the experimenter. (Experimental group). We want to find a difference between the groups that is so large, it is virtually impossible for the null to be true. Therefore, we REJECT THE NULL and ACCEPT THE ALTERNATIVE. Significance/Hypothesis Testing Q := texting less lovely ? opposite L Null : random chance of 3 Score , not enough O O of diff not that big Hypothesis Testing = > lot of variant distribution = low variant higher chance of overlap a Random overlapo = wo a w want Low O O The Limits of Statistical Hypothesis Testing If we have a p-value of 0.05 (a common standard), this means that there is less than a 5% chance the difference between the two groups was due to chance What if conducted 100 tests? "Comparinggroupstosay d Acceptable p-value is arbitrary normal. Just the 5%  Statistical high The Limits of Statistical Practical Exam Ar variance Hypothesis Testing ⑤ ⑤ variants ! Testing more people, makes Examorstance significant results more likely, even for ↓ d meaningless differences ⑭ Statistically significant does not necessarily mean practical significance Effect size as a more nuanced alternative measures deg overeral differences of a Calculated value indicates the degree of the difference between groups rather than reducing the significance decision to a yes/no decision. Convenient general differences. 90pp Less common Hard costs $ 30 years 30 years  Promoting the Welfare of Research · Participants Ethical issues must be addressed before a study begins – Milgram’s Shock Study experiment 10-15 pg doe before conducting Research Ethics Board (REB): a committee of researchers and officials at an institution charged with the protection of human research participants  Obtaining Informed Consent Informed consent: a potential volunteer must be informed of the purpose, tasks, and risks involved in the study, and give consent to away participate based on the information get provided with disception 11 Topic sign arti t c i p ate ↳ "mislead Nature of stimuli Nature of tasks Duration Risks Steps taken to minimize risks Obtaining Informed Consent formation. in Deception: misleading or only partially informing Hold back participants of the true topic or hypothesis under won't participata to you wanna estsant · investigation · Don't get Given enough information to consent uncomfortable Full consent - Can refuse participation without fear of penalty Given equal opportunities The right to withdraw Withhold responses Debriefing: means that the researchers should explain the true nature of the study, and especially the nature of and  reason for the deception The Welfare of Animals in Research dependsanimal or Animals used when: Treatments cannot be applied to humans Heritability studies require species with short lifespans Examining evolutionary origins of behaviour and cognition comforthed Committees oversee ethical disr a treatment Risk o needsandmarly Given appropriate housing, feeding, and sanitation Studies of sick or stressed animals do not provide  Ethical Collection, Storage, and Reporting of Data Data kept for 3 to 5 years Autism measles a Replication · take data money Honesty with data paramount · Acknowledge conflicts of interest Scientific misconduct has lasting repercussions The unfounded panic surrounding vaccines and autism CH.3 GENES, EVOLUTION, AND ENVIRONMENT BEHAVIOURAL GENETICS Behavioral  ________: Genetics An interdisciplinary Field of study concerned with genetic contributions to individual difference in behaviour and personality.  They adopt a nature and nurture approach in their investigations. Genes + environment environment Furn on/off genes from  The Genetic Code 46 chromosomes. 23 pairs Chromosomes: structures in the cell nucleus that contains the genes an individual inherits DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): a double-helix molecule that contains four types of nucleotides (A, C, T, G) AT CG pairs. , , Genes: the basic unit of heredity; guides protein synthesis GENES AND PROTEINS ________ (A & T, G & C) sequences (The Nucleotides specific genes) represent the instructions used to create all the proteins in the human body. Every cell (other than egg & sperm, B & T cells) contains the same Chromosomes and genes. However, depending on the cell, different genes are “turned on” or “expressed” and those proteins will be made. Genotypes vs Phenotypes Genotype ________: the genetic can't see makeup of an organism alleles. Phenotype ________: the observable characteristics, including physical structures and behaviours can see. E.g., Height: interaction between genotype and environment ↑ genetic.  Review. Biology FUNDAMENTALS OF GENETIC TRANSMISSION ________: when genes at a Homozygous particular location are the same on each chromosome Expressed _______: when the genes at a Heterozygous particular location are dominant > recessive different on each chromosome Dominant vs recessive genes  * on test Punrett square THE HUMAN GENOME All of our genes, together with noncoding DNA, make up the Human Genome. Most traits depend on more than tracking down one gene pair. makeshand ,technology a , techniques Human Genome Project finished mapping the entire human genome in 2003! AT CG , ↑ not 100 % THE HUMAN GENOME Genome wide association 1) __________: studies Scientists look for genes that vary across people and determine whether those genetic variants are consistently observed in those who have a specific disease or trait, compared to those without it. Polygenetic score 2) Linkage studiesTake advantage of the tendency of genes lying close together on a __________: chromosome to be inherited together across generations. pattern of inheritance  Researcher starts by looking for Genetic Markers, which are DNA segments that vary considerably among individuals and whose locations on the chromosome are already know. Ex. Large familiesw violent genetic markers HUMAN GENOME Locating a gene does not tell the researcher about its role in physical and physiological functioning. Be wary of news reports stating scientists have found a gene supposedly explaining a human trait e.g., “worry gene,” ”procrastination gene,” Aren't true. more than I gave might be activated by environment  EPIGENETICS on/off turn - affects , Epigenetics studies stable changes in the behaviour memory , expression of a particular gene that occur without changes in DNA base sequences. Many people think of the genome as a static blueprint, a set of coded messages that never changes over a person’s lifetime. This is NOT TRUE. GENES CHANGE alwase changing genome base pairs expressions can change ↳ mutation. ,  EVOLUTION AND NATURAL SELECTION Evolutionary ____________ Psychologists are interested in the origins of many human behaviors, such as smiling and laughter, which are universal among primates and are part of our shared evolutionary heritage. They trace these to the processes of evolution, especially the process of natural selection.  Evolutionary Psychology Evolution can now be thought of as the change in frequency of genes occurring in a population over generations selection natural yellowpaving stop  traits that help us survive are adaptive , passed on OVERTIME NATURAL SELECTION Natural Selection: The evolutionary process in which individuals with genetically influenced traits that are adaptive in an environment tend to survive and reproduce in greater numbers, results in those traits becoming more common. Natural selection is still happening today to people, but in much less obvious ways. not as common now , · wisdom heth are not useful anymore ,  * discredited * > - not considering nortue with a evolved trait L - MENTAL MODULES Our mind has a collection of specialized mental modules to handle specific survival problems. Evolutionary lense. chance tothe =X competing o a stranger, have and do. These modules do not have to correspondf split & mental module : to one specific brain area. Compassion Critics are concerned that the notion of mental modules might lead to the misguided assumption that virtually every human activity and capacity, is innate.  Born INNATE HUMAN ability CHARACTERISTIC (advantagors trait) 1) Infant Reflexes E 2) An Interest in Novelty staring interested animal : New : interesting kingdom 3) A Desire to Explore and Manipulate Objects 4) An Impulse to Play and Fool Around 5) O Basic Cognitive Abilities  trait ment to any psychological are EVOLUTION AND pass on trait SEXUAL STRATEGIES biology An interdisciplinary field _________: Social that emphasizes evolutionary explanations of social behaviour in animals, including human beings. Sociobiologists contend that evolution breeds tendency to act in ways maximizing chances of passing on our genes and to help our close biological relatives (with whom we share many genes) do the same. males/femalesore different  THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT THE EVOLUTIONARY VIEW Challenges to the evolutionary view of human sexual strategies: Stereotypes versus actual behavior: Are based on simplistic stereotypes of gender differences. abt What people say versus what they do: Rely too heavily on not truthful yourself completely. answers to questionnaires, which often do not reflect real-life choices. Convenience versus representative samples: Convenience Exonly testing · concluding only women- women COMORT samples used in questionnaire studies are not necessarily SMALL , tested Q women in representative of people in general. 60's on done in 70s , , school. The Pleistocene period is over: The evolutionary emphasis on the Pleistocene period may not be warranted. views from "Hunter Gatherer " are.  THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT THE EVOLUTIONARY VIEW Genes hold culture on a leash, but how long and tight? Too short and tight to allow 1 much change Or, long and flexible to permit many possible customs? , Sociobiologists: The leash is short and tight. > - dependent on passing genes Evolutionary psychologists: Elastic to permit culture to modify evolved biological - tendencies; those tendencies can be pretty powerful. Critics: Cultural variations mean that no single, genetically determined sexual strategy exists for human beings. Evolution has bestowed on us an amazingly flexible brain. variation within cultures individuals. , In matters of sex and love, as in all other human behaviors, the leash is long and flexible.  HERITABILITY Heritability is an estimate of the proportion of the total variance in some trait that is attributable to genetic differences among individuals within a group. lower inheritability ) environment : proportion These scores range from 0 – 1. Which trait is interited ? Come from environment? 1) An estimate of heritability applies only to a similar particular group living in a particular environment. 2) Heritability estimates do not apply to a specific person, only to variations within a group of people. Average. Outliers are a factor 3) Even highly heritable traits can be modified by the environment. BEHAVIOURAL STUDIES Twin Studies: Monozygotic (Identical twins) have almost 100% of the same DNA. Whereas, Dizygotic(Fraternal twins) share around 50% DNA. Adoption Studies: Compare traits of a child between their biological parents (Nature) and their adopted parents (Nurture).  GENES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IQ scores of identical twins are Nature Genes. always much more highly Nature + Nurture correlated than those of fraternal twins, a difference that reflects the Nature + Nurture influence of genes. Nurture Adopted children’s scores correlate more highly with those of Neither Nurture biological parents than nonbiological relatives. THE QUESTION OF GROUP DIFFERENCES mmm If genes influence individual differences in intelligence, do they also help account for differences between groups? This question has enormous political and social importance. It is a mistake to draw conclusions about between-group differences from heritability estimates based on differences within a group. * CH.4 THE BRAIN AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM  THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM The function of a nervous system is to: gather and process information produce responses to stimuli coordinate the workings of different cells Scientists divide the nervous system into the: Central Nervous System (CNS) ___________ ___________ Periferal Nerovors System (PNs)(  THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM The CNS, which includes the brain and ______________: Spinal cord receives, processes, interprets, and stores information sends out messages destined for muscles, glands, and organs The spinal cord produces some behaviors on its own without any help from the brain. These spinal reflexes are automatic, requiring no conscious effort.  THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Dependent on CNS. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) handles the central nervous system’s input and output. The peripheral nervous system consists of the: ________________, which permits sensation and voluntary actions __________________, which regulates blood vessels, glands, and internal (visceral) organs  THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM The autonomic system usually functions without conscious control. The autonomic nervous system is further divided into the: __________ nervous system, which mobilizes the body for action __________ nervous system, which conserves energy These two parts work together, but in opposing ways, to adjust the body to changing circumstances.  THE NEURON Dendrites: Small Branches radiating from cell body that receive signals from · in other cells and transmit them to the axons. vodeeen Cell Body/Soma: The part of the neural that houses the nucleus. This is where the DNA of the cell is stored. · Aron Terminal  THE NEURON Axon: Transports information in the form of electrochemical reactions from the cell body to the end of the neuron. Axon Hillock/Nodes of Ranvier: If stimulation is strong enough and action potential is reached at the hillock it moves down the Axon. The action potential is propagated at eachO node and jumps to the next, regenerating the charge of the transmission.  THE NEURON Myelin Sheath: An insulating layer that forms around the axon of the nerves. Allows electrical impulses to be transmitted quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells.  Glial Cells Glial cells: a variety of cell types that serve support functions for neurons Engulf debris and Produce extensions Provide physical mounts immune that wrap axons in support and delivers response myelin energy to neurons  NEUROGENESIS: THE BIRTH OF NEURONS Research has disproven two old assumptions: Severed axons in the spinal cord cannot regrow if you treat them with certain nervous system chemicals. That mammals produce no new CNS cells after infancy. _________: The production of new neurons from immature stem cells. _________: Immature cells that renew themselves and have the potential, given encouraging environments to developed into mature cells of any type.  3 MAIN NEURONS Sensory Neuron: Gather info from inside and outside the body Interneuron: Receive info from sensory neurons and decide what to do. Motor Neuron: Responds to the stimulation from the sensory neuron if it is deemed strong enough. HOW NEURONS COMMUNICATE Communication between two neurons occurs at the synapse. When a wave of electrical voltage (action potential) reaches the end of a transmitting axon, neurotransmitter molecules are released into the synaptic cleft. ACTION POTENTIAL  MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS The myelin sheath and Nodes of Ranvier facilitate the rapid conduction of neural impulses. Diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS) are the result of malfunctioning glial cells Microglia mount immune response against myelin sheath  Neurotransmitters · sic speck Synaptic cleft: the small space between the terminal button and the dendrite of another neuron Reuptake: a process whereby released neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the axon terminals of the pre-synaptic neuron § Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI)  se Types of Neurotransmitters not test Xo [[Insert Table 3.1 from p. 98 here]] Excitatory _______ neurotransmitters: Increase the likelihood of der an action potential occurring Yand. S Inhibitory _______ neurotransmitters: Decrease the likelihood of an action potential occurring Stop next neuron from firing  Drug Effects on Neurotransmitters Agonists _________: drugs that enhance or mimic the effects of a neurotransmitter’s action replicating § Direct vs indirect agonists the reuptake neuro * blocking Antagonists _________: inhibit neurotransmitter activity by blocking receptors or preventing synthesis of the neurotransmitter  direct more neuro Blocking  CHEMICAL MESSENGERS IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Hormones: Long-distance Messengers Hormones are produced mainly by the _______________: endocrine glands pancreas ovaries testes adrenal glands They are released directly into the bloodstream. They affect—and are affected by—the nervous system. CHEMICAL MESSENGERS IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Neuroscientists are especially interested in: melatonin ______________, secreted by the pineal gland sleep cycle ______________, oxcytocin secreted by another small gland in the brain, pituitary gland Child birth milk for baby , , ______________, adrenal produced by adrenal glands, involved in emotions - and stress blood level , energy boost cortisol, outer part increase , for epinephrine, norepinephrine, inner part adrenaline , prepares action hormonesusedfor learning + memory ________________ sex things - androgens, testosterone, estrogen, progesterone synaptic memory MANIPULATING THE BRAIN AND OBSERVING BEHAVIOR F _____________: Lesion Method The removal or disabling of a non-human animal’s brain structure to gain better understanding of it function. - We obviously cannot use this method on humans.  MANIPULATING THE BRAIN AND OBSERVING BEHAVIOR disrupts firing con : not specific targetted areas Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) , - in brain temporarily shutting down non-invasive area _________________________(tDCS) an , transcranial direct current stimulation _________________________(tACS) transcranial alternating stimulation current All three use electrical stimulation to stimulate or suppress different areas of the brain.  MANIPULATING BEHAVIOR AND OBSERVING THE BRAIN Tools that allow researchers to investigate the structure and function of the brain include: neural of not precise a recording activity electroencephalogram (EEG) detected by , electrodes event-related potentials (ERPs) positron emission tomography (PET) scan & magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) functional MRI (f M R I)  MANIPULATING BEHAVIOR AND OBSERVING THE BRAIN _______________ (EEG): A recording of Neural Activity detected by electrodes. - ______________ (ERPs): Waveforms of neural activity associated with specific stimuli or events With ERPs, we still don’t know where the activity is occurring, but we know when it is occurring.  blue : not stimulated red : used a lot Oc , stimulated MANIPULATING BEHAVIOR AND OBSERVING THE BRAIN positron emission tomography (PET) scan biochemical changes in brain con : not specific parts of brain-general magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) magnetic detailed any angle field, , con : doesn't show what part is stimulated functional MRI (fMRI) BEST ! Like MRI , detects blood O2 level& any time. given both worlds PET Best of con : expensive CONTROVERSIES AND CAUTIONS We need to understand that technology cannot replace critical thinking. Researchers make a variety of choices that can leave small contrasts looking more dramatic than they really are or larger ones seeming insignificant. Simply including an image of brain activity can be enough to make a study’s conclusions seem more compelling, even when they are not. CONTROVERSIES AND CAUTIONS The problems are not with fMRI as technology so much as with bad theories, poorly defined dependent measures, and inappropriate interpretations of results, all of which can produce dubious findings. Attempts to reduce complex behavior to single locations in the brain will almost certainly fail, just as phrenology failed. Studies are initial steps in understanding brain processes, to be interpreted with great caution, though can provide an illuminating look at brain function.  THE BRAIN STEM AND CEREBELLUM In the lower part of the brain, in the brain stem, the ___________ medulla controls automatic functions: heartbeat melatoning breathing where produce is The _______ pons is involved in: sleeping waking dreaming  THE BRAIN STEM AND CEREBELLUM The reticular activating system (RAS): screens incoming information is responsible for alertness connect a areas The cerebellum __________: emotion speech , contributes to balance and muscle coordination plays a role in cognitive and emotional learning If your cerebellum were damaged, you would: become clumsy, uncoordinated have trouble using pencil, threading needle, walking  THE THALAMUS taste sight hearing , , touch , The __________ thalamus directs sensory messages to appropriate higher centers in the brain. Smell is the only sense that bypasses the thalamus. Smell does NOT Specialized cells are located in the __________. olfactory bulb sending messages  "bodies boss fur homeostasis" THE HYPOTHALAMUS AND THE PITUITARY GLAND Tells The hypothalamus is involved in emotion and drives that are vital to survival. It also: controls the operations of the autonomic nervous system sends out chemicals that tell the ~ pituitary gland when to “talk” to other ___________ - C endocrine glands other  to survive more likely of less likely diff for activation levels active 2 works diff & fear non active anxiety - everyone. THE AMYGDALA The amygdala is responsible for: evaluating sensory information quickly determining its biological impact "Shouldwetried " be This affects the initial decision to approach or withdraw from the situation. It is also involved in: fear mediating anxiety and depression forming and retrieving emotional memories  ability for of Loss NEW memory creating was removed HE HIPPOCAMPUS it Because is a different Muscle memory of the brain part The hippocampus is a key brain structure in the formation of new memories. The brain typically contains two hippocampi, one on each side (hemisphere) of the brain. It plays a critical role in the formation of long- ing term memories for facts and events and other aspects of memory. # M Role of patient __________.. o G : cycling accident patientk the hippocampus Out -  THE CEREBRUM communication Much of the brain’s circuitry is packed into the cerebrum, which is: divided into two cerebral hemispheres (connected by the corpus callosum, which is a bundle of nerve fibers connecting both talk to. hemispheres) left side to right covered by thin layers of cells known collectively as the cerebral cortex controlsrighis left. ______________ hemispheric laterization left Specialization of the two cerebral hemispheres for particular operation. The left side of the body controls the right and vice versa.  THE CEREBRAL CORTEX neur in moroda ~ Lobes of the Cortex Cerebral cortex: Collection of several thin layers of cells covering the cerebrum largely responsible for higher mental functions. The lobes of the cortex have specialized (but partially overlapping) functions: of brain responsible vision. not the only part occipital primarily parietal temporal frontal  THE OCCIPITAL AND TEMPORAL LOBE starts ! The Occipital lobe is also dubbed the visual cortex. salad word. The Temporal lobe is home to the auditory cortex It is also where __________ Wernicke's Area is which is involved in language comprehension. facial recognition taken.  THE PARIETAL LOBE Includes the Somatosensory _________________ cortex which receives information about pressure, pain, touch, and temperature from all over the body. Half LEFT side Neglects. Parts of the parietal lobes that lie behind the somatosensory cortex are involved in attention and awareness of spatial relationships. Patientsfailana side Lesions to this cause Hemispatial Neglect. THE FRONTAL LOBE Includes the _________ motor corley which issues orders to the 600 muscles of the body that produce voluntary movement. Also contains ___________, Brock's Area which handles speech production.  THE PREFRONTAL CORTEX The association cortex appears to be responsible for higher mental processes. The frontal lobes, particularly areas in the prefrontal cortex, are involved in: social judgment Large % move than other making and carrying out plans every. animal decision making Case of Phineas Gage A SPLIT BRAINS: A HOUSE DIVIDED to storplepsy Split-brain surgery involves a severing of the corpus callosum. area moder a Myers and Sperry Studies of split-brain patients show that the two cerebral hemispheres have somewhat different talents. Split Brain surgery was used to help people with Epilepsy  When connection is severed, can’t process information SPLIT BRAIN PATIENTS Both eyes send information to both sides of the brain. However, the left field of hemifield of vison goes to the right brain and the right hemifield goes to the left brain.  A SPLIT BRAINS: A HOUSE DIVIDED The left hemisphere is generally specialized for: logical, symbolic, and sequential tasks The right hemisphere is associated with: visual–spatial tasks facial recognition the creation and appreciation of art and music Test right eye , Seeing seeing on left Processing LEE on hemisphere Right ↑ doesn't process wernickets They know ,b.  state verbally saw, which one you side need left talleda , right sight will be  THE CHANGING BRAIN truh Brain previously thought to be Not unchanging outside critical developmental window during childhood "once v hit 18 , ↑ 2 you stop growing's Neural plasticity: the brain’s ability to change structure and function Adult Neurogenesis: formation of new neurons that are integrated into the adult brain expanding Dendritic branching and formation of dendritic spines more recons , faster communicate  - tempural neurons BRAIN lobe PLASTICITY AND - ADAPTING TO BLINDNESS lobe during hearing occipital tasks Generalized : "Other senses get better be " lose 1 they  Culture: A program of shared rules, values, symbols, communication systems, and conventions that governs the behavior of members of a community. Cultural neuroscience: Study of how links CULTURE AND between- neural and cultural forces can THE BRAIN create different patterns of behavior, perception, and cognition. Research includes investigation of - bilingualism, literacy, and cross-cultural studies.  diff- practical difference statistical Brain scans and other techniques have revealed many male–female differences in brain-anatomy and function. connections between cortex and SEX amygdala ideas were pushed for DIFFERENCES IN frontal lobes Stereotypes THE BRAIN? cortical folds number of neurons lateralization of amygdala Controversy exists, however, about what such differences mean in real life. SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE BRAIN? dom studies while Some of the brain research has focused on behavioral or Ch ago cognitive differences that are small and- insignificant. Even when gender differences are statistically significant, they are often quite small in practical terms. Some findings have been widely accepted but then have failed to replicate. Sex differences in experience could affect brain organization and function rather than the other way around. SEX DIFFERENCES IN THE BRAIN? Cautions about “sex and the brain” Statistical difference is large Many supposed differences between men and women in intuition, but comparatively small abilities, and traits are stereotypes. overlap is greater , A brain difference does not necessarily produce a difference in behavior or performance. Differences in the brain do not account for differences in behavior across situations. The eternal problem of cause and effect: Some apparent differences in the brain result from, rather than cause, behavioral differences. The elusive brain difference: Now you see it, now you don’t. Generalization to the whole populatio n.