Science and Society by Carl Sagan

• The topic emphasizes the importance of science to society.
• Required reading comes from The Demon-Haunted World, Chapter 2, "Science and Hope" by Carl Sagan.
• The chapter addresses the importance of science and scientific literacy to society.

Science as a Way of Thinking

• Science is more than a body of knowledge, it represents a way of thinking that requires evidence and skepticism.

Dangers of a Scientifically Illiterate Society

• The recipe for disaster involves a society that combines advanced technology with a lack of scientific literacy.
• This lack of understanding about technology's implications may lead to dangerous outcomes.

Limits and Strengths of Science

• Science cannot provide moral guidance or answer existential questions.
• Science can offer tools for solving problems and improving the human condition through evidence-based solutions.

Self-Correcting Nature of Science

• Science corrects itself through peer review, replication of experiments, and revisions based upon new evidence.
• This ensures errors are addressed.

Hope for Clarity

• The great commandment of science is to question everything.
• Science isn't always satisfying because humans often prefer absolute answers.
• Certainty isn't attainable; instead, seek clarity and refinement of knowledge.

Science Delivers

• Science measurably improves lives through medicine and technology, unlike pseudoscience and religion.

Scientific Inquiry

• Adherence to science involves appreciating its methodical approach rather than blind reverence.
• It means staying open to change instead of succumbing to dogmatism.

The Scientific Community

• The scientific community is rigorous and self-regulating.
• Peer review, replication, skepticism, and transparency maintain the integrity and credibility.

Einstein's Special Relativity

• Einstein's explanation illustrates the elegance and simplicity that can emerge from deep scientific understanding.
• Science can reveal profound truths about the universe

Science vs. Metaphysics

• "The metaphysicist has no laboratory."
• Science relies on experiment and evidence, metaphysics relies on abstract ideas that cannot be tested or observed.

Reasons for Conveying Science

• Science is a survival tool in an advanced world
• Science fosters a sense of wonder and curiosity about the universe.
• Science promotes critical thinking and skepticism, essential for democracy.
• Science helps address existential questions rationally with evidence.

Basic vs. Applied Research

• Basic research focuses on understanding fundamental principles
• Applied research addresses real-world issues for practical outcomes.

Applied Research

Applied research focuses on the importance of the behavior under investigation to the individual or society.

Pragmatism and Behaviorism

• Pragmatism evaluates theories or beliefs based on their practical applications and outcomes
• Behaviorism focuses on observable, measurable behavior, aligning with pragmatism's emphasis on practical results
• Both prioritize what can be done over theoretical discussions

Emphasis on Action

• "The relevant question is not what he can say, but what he can do."
• The emphasis is on observable, measurable actions, not verbal or self-reported abilities.

Behaviors in Applied Research

• Applied research focuses on behaviors that are socially significant and relevant to real-world contexts.
• Social skills involve nuances like tone and body language, which are harder to quantify than simple physical actions.

Change of Behavior

• "A useful tactic in evaluating the behavioral attributes of a study is to ask not merely, ask not merely, was behavior changed? but also, whose behavior?"
• Determining whether the behavior change occurred in the intended individual or population instead of peripheral participants is of key importance.

Defining Behavior

• Behavior is anything a person does that can be observed, measured, and affects the environment; not a label, trait, or internal state.

Dimensions of behavior include:

• Frequency: How often.
• Duration: How long.
• Intensity: The physical force.
• Latency: The time until the behavior begins

Objective Measurement

• Observation ensures behaviors are objectively measured rather than inferred, allowing consistent data collection
• Behavior is an interaction with the environment and happens in a continuous stream, causing environmental change

Lawful Behavior

• Behavior is systematic and follows predictable patterns conditioned by reinforcement, punishment and stimulus control

Distinguishing Behaviors

• Overt behavior: Observable actions. Running and speaking are examples.
• Covert behavior: Internal events like thinking and feeling that cannot be directly observed.

Behavioral Definition

• Objective (not based on interpretations) is a feature of behavioral definition.
• Clear, precise and understandable.
• Complete, includes all examples.
• Should not include mentalistic terms or subjective labels

Labels and Definitions

Labels do not describe specific actions and can be misleading.

• Defining behaviors in measurable terms is essential for effective intervention.

Observational Definitions

Consistency is increased when definitions are clear

Social Validity

• Social validity refers to whether a behavior change is meaningful and beneficial to individuals and society.

Measurement Procedures

• Event recording: Counting occurrences of a behavior.
• Duration recording: Measuring total time a behavior lasts.
• Latency recording: Measuring time between stimulus and start of behavior.
• Interresponse time (IRT) recording: Measuring time between consecutive responses.
• Partial-interval recording: Recording if a behavior occurs at any point in an interval.
• Whole-interval recording: Recording if a behavior occurs for the entire interval.
• Momentary time sampling: Checking if a behavior is occurring at the end of an interval.
• Permanent product recording: Measuring behavior based on its lasting effects.

Event Recording

The strength of event recording is that it provides an accurate count. It is useful for behaviors that have a clear start and stop.

When to Use

• Appropriate when the behavior has a clear beginning and end and does not occur too frequently.
• Not appropriate when behavior happens at very high rates or lacks a clear start and stop.

Duration Recording

When the total time spent engaging in a behavior is important, such as when an activity has various durations, duration recordings are useful

Duration Recording Practicality

• Limit to practicality: Requires continuous observation; difficult to implement when multiple behaviors must align simultaneously.

Behavior Intensity

• Examples: force of a punch, volume of screaming, pressure applied while writing.

Original Examples:

Objective intensity measure: Measuring the decibel level of a person’s scream. Subjective intensity measure: A teacher rating tantrums on a scale.

Permanent Products

• Example: Math worksheets completed. Conditions for use: The product must be a reliable indicator of the behavior, produced consistently, and not altered by outside factors.

Partial-interval Recording

• Advantages: Useful for behaviors at high rates and does not require continuous observation.
• Disadvantages: Can overestimate behavior frequency and do not capture exact durations.

Factors to Consider

• Identify the purpose of measurement
• Determine if the behavior can be directly observed.
• Decide if continuous measurement is feasible.
• Choose a method based on the behavior's characteristics and practical constraints.

Interobserver Agreement (IOA)

IOA assesses the extent to which different observers record the same behaviors consistently.

Accuracy vs. Agreement

• Accuracy: The extent to which recorded data correspond to the actual occurrence of the behavior i.e. Observation correctly reflects reality.
• Agreement: The extent to which observers record the same behavior. High agreement does not necessarily mean high accuracy.

Observer Agreement

Kazdin discusses that agreement between observers may align but accuracy is still questionable when observers overestimate leading to high agreement but poor accuracy.

Sources of Bias

• Observer Reactivity: Observers may alter their recording behavior when monitored.
• Kazdin's Recommendations: Implement periodic checks to minimize observer reactivity.

Observer Drift

Over time, observers may shift their interpretation of behaviors, leading to inconsistent data.

• Solutions: retraining, new observers, and videotaping sessions

Complexity of Behavior

• Complex behaviors are harder to code reliably.
• Solution: simplify coding systems and training for observers

Observer Expectancy

• Observers may record data in a biased way due to expectations or hypotheses.
• Solution: Use blind observers who do not know the hypotheses

Observer Fatigue

• Long observation periods can lead to fatigue reducing reliability.
• Solution: Shorter observation sessions and breaks.

Feedback and Incentives

• Observers who get feedback may adjust their behavior unintentionally.
• Solution: Use feedback mechanisms that promote accuracy without bias and dont provide feedback

Findings

• Reid (1970) found observer drift occurs even among well-trained observers.
• Romanczyk et al. (1973) found that agreement can be inflated when observers share biases, emphasizing verification of accuracy.

Methods for Observers

• Can include: "spot checks," randomly selected videos, having others present occasionally, and reinforcing consistent recording practices

Hiding Observations

To accomplish you can use covert observation with hidden cameras, a third-party, or analyze past recordings without informing the observer

Reliability Estimates

If behavior measured is predictable, high agreement may simply reflect the predictability rather than the accuracy of observations

Implications

Studies should account for predictability and Practitioners agree should reflect observational consistency over predictability.

Multiple Observers

Kazdin recommends using multiple independent observers. This reduces bias, helps detect drift and strengthens research validity

Complexity Definition

Complexity in terms of behavior means behaviors are difficult to define.

Complexity in Procedures

Some data collection methods increase recording errors such as the methods that involve complicated scoring systems.

Analysis

• Simple agreement percentages may not fully capture reliability.
• More sophisticated statistical methods, such as Cohen's kappa, should adjust for chance agreement.

Implications of Interpretations:

• When behavior is predictable, observers may agree without accurate or complex behaviors lower observer agreement.
• estimates get cautiously interpreted when measures like cohens kappa get integrated

Limitations

• Many studies rely on percentage agreement without adjusting for chance agreement.