Study Guide for History of Structures Test #1 PDF

Study Guide for History of Structures Test #1 Date & Time: January 27, 2025, 8:40 - 10:10 AM Topics and Themes from Lectures 1. Structural Intuition, Understanding, and Imagination ​ Importance of embodied awareness in structural concepts ​ The role of intuition in structural design (Pier...

Study Guide for History of Structures Test #1 Date & Time: January 27, 2025, 8:40 - 10:10 AM Topics and Themes from Lectures 1. Structural Intuition, Understanding, and Imagination ​ Importance of embodied awareness in structural concepts ​ The role of intuition in structural design (Pierre Luigi Nervi’s perspective) ○​ Intuition plays a crucial role in architecture, it guides the creation of structures without the mathematics, relying too much on calculations can limit creativity. ​ The significance of imagination in structural development (Albert Einstein’s views) ○​ Albert Einstein (a man known for his knowledge of logical conventions), says that logic can only take you so far because it has limits, but imagination can take you beyond boundaries and progress knowledge. ​ The Homunculus: ○​ The Homunculus is a neurological model that maps the human body's sensory and motor functions within the brain. It represents the proportional awareness and control of different body parts, illustrating how some areas, like the hands, lips, and tongue, have a significantly larger representation due to their fine motor skills and sensory input. ​ Sensory Homunculus: Maps the body's sensory awareness, showing how the brain processes touch, temperature, and pain from various body parts.  ​ Motor Homunculus: Represents motor control, highlighting areas responsible for voluntary movements. The more intricate the movement (e.g., playing an instrument), the larger the representation. ○​ This mapping is dynamic and continuously evolving, meaning that as a person engages in activities like playing the guitar, drums, saxophone, or piano, their brain's representation of these movements adapts and refines over time. The Homunculus is not a fixed model but a constantly changing and transforming reflection of bodily awareness and motor skills as one learns and interacts with the environment. 2. Basic Structural Action/Behavior ​ Tension & Compression (Relationship) ○​ Compression: Opposing horizontal forces push inward, deforming the material as if pulled vertically. ○​ Tension: Opposing horizontal forces pull outward, making the material appear compressed vertically. ​ Inverted Catenary Curves & Heinz Isler’s Hanging Models ○​ A hanging chain naturally forms a catenary curve, where each link experiences pure tension. ○​ If this curve is inverted, it becomes an arch, which supports loads in pure compression. ○​ Heinz Isler (1926-2009) pioneered structural innovations using inverted catenary surfaces for roofs and shells.  ○​ A practical method: Soak a flexible material (cord, grid, or cloth) in plaster, let it hang, harden, then invert it—it will form a stable compression-based structure. ​ Tension & Compression in Bending ○​ Bending creates compression and tension simultaneously: ​ Compression occurs at the bottom of a bent object. ​ Tension forms at the top. ​ In between, there is a neutral zone where neither force dominates. ○​ Foam grid models visually demonstrate bending forces, showing elongation (tension) and compression (shortening) when curved. ○​ Inverting the shape reveals how forces shift, reinforcing the relationship between tension and compression in structural behaviour. ​ Line of Action: Forces acting along the same line (axially) ​ Structural Systems & Materials: ○​ Reinforced Concrete Structures ​ Concrete & Slab Action ​ One-way slabs: Beams and girders provide support along two edges. ​ Two-way slabs: Support comes from all four sides, enhancing load distribution. ​ Identify one-way action and two-way action. ○​ One-Way Action  ​ Definition: A structural system where loads are transferred in one primary direction. ​ Characteristics: ​ Slabs are supported on two opposite sides (e.g., beams or walls). ​ The load is distributed along the shorter span. ​ Common in rectangular floor slabs and beam-supported structures. ​ Examples: ​ One-way slabs with beams and girders ​ Joist-supported slabs ○​ Two-Way Action ​ Definition: A structural system where loads are distributed in two perpendicular directions. ​ Characteristics: ​ Slabs are supported on all four sides. ​ Load is carried in both directions, making the structure more efficient for square or nearly square layouts. ​ Typically used when span lengths in both directions are similar. ​ Examples:  ​ Two-way flat slabs ​ Waffle slabs ​ Grid systems ○​ Key Difference: ​ One-way action → Load is carried in one direction. ​ Two-way action → Load is carried in both directions for better load distribution. ○​ Steel Frame Construction ○​ Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) ○​ Fabric structures ​ ETFE is a chemical compound designed to have high corrosion resistance and weather durability ​ In the winter, the plaza can be covered ​ Load Distribution ○​ The Milwaukee Art Museum, Quadracci Pavilion, Santiago Calatrava. ​ Load distribution coming down from the roof through the walls, floors and the soil-bearing reaction at the foundation. ○​ Distribution of Loads on Structures ​ Loads travel from the roof to the foundation through walls, beams, and columns. ​ Load distribution depends on structural design, materials, and environmental factors. ○​ Different Types of Loads on Buildings: ​ Dead Loads: Permanent, do not move (e.g., walls, beams, floors). ​ Live Loads: Vary over time (e.g., people, furniture, equipment). ​ Occupancy Loads: Weight of people and movable objects in a space. ​ Environmental Loads: Natural forces like wind, snow, and earthquakes. ○​ What is a load? ​ A load refers to any force applied to a building or structure. It can include: ​ People standing or walking on a floor ​ Furniture and movable objects ​ Crowds in stadiums, museums, or auditoriums ​ Structural components such as beams and floor slabs ​ Types of Loads ​ Loads on buildings are divided into two main categories: ○​ 1. Dead Loads (Permanent & Immovable) ​ Constant over time and do not move ​ Includes the building's structure (columns, walls, beams, floors, ceilings) ​ Also includes fixed materials like flooring, finishes, and exterior enclosures ○​ 2. Live Loads (Variable & Movable) ​ Change over time and can move ​ Includes people, furniture, and equipment  ​ Can be temporary, such as crowds in an event space ​ Additional Load Categories ​ Occupancy Loads: The weight of people and movable objects in a space (e.g., number of people in an elevator or auditorium) ○​ Varies based on usage (e.g., auditoriums, offices, residences). ○​ Building codes regulate occupancy loads to ensure safety. ​ Environmental Loads: Forces from natural phenomena such as wind, snow, and earthquakes ​ Loads on a Foundation ​ A building’s foundation experiences different types of loads, including: ○​ Vertical Loads – Forces applied downward (e.g., weight of the building) ○​ Lateral Loads – Horizontal forces (e.g., wind, earthquakes) ○​ Static Loads – Remain constant over time ○​ Dynamic Loads – Change with movement (e.g., vibrations, vehicles) ○​ Concentrated Loads – Applied to a specific small area ○​ Uniform Loads – Spread evenly over a surface ​ Structural Considerations  ​ Dead loads determine the strength and stability of a structure since they are permanent. ​ Live loads vary, so buildings are designed to accommodate changing weight and movement. ​ Building codes regulate occupancy loads to ensure safety and account for different uses of a space. ​ The Lever Principle ○​ Class 1, 2, & 3 ​ Class 1: ​ load, fulcrum in the middle and force pushing down (claw hammer, pliers, scissors) ​ Class 2: ​ fulcrum at the end, load in middle, force upwards (wheel barrow, nut-cracker, car door) ​ Class 3: ​ fulcrum at the end, force in the middle, force upwards but at the end (human arm, broom, fishing rod)  ○​ Applications in the Body ​ Class 1: head ​ Class 2: foot (pivoting on the heel/ankle would be class 1) ​ Class 3: arm ​ Vertical Gravity ○​ The Vertical Pull of Gravity ​ Plumb bob set up kit ​ Makes sure things are straight, like walls ​ Posture ​ The Plum Bob  ○​ The Center of Gravity of your body shifts as you move, bend, reach, etc.. ​ Is the center of gravity of your body always in the center of your body? ​ The center of gravity is not fixed at the center of your body. It constantly shifts depending on body posture, movement, and external forces. ○​ Need 2 plumb lines for a 2D surface, and 3 for a 3D volume to locate the Center of Gravity ​ How Can Artificial Gravity be Generated/Created? ○​ Space Odyssey ​ Pivoting space station, generating gravity in the space ​ Artificial gravity can be produced under certain circumstances ​ Horizontal Gravity ○​ The Horizon ​ The horizontal spread of a liquid due to gravity ○​ A liquid in a container will be pulled ​ Leveling device ​ Has a vertical, horizontal and 45 angular levelling ​ Has a dense green fluid with an air bubble ​ Essential markings ​ What is critical of a levelling device? ​ Dense Liquid ​ Markings ​ Air Bubble  ​ Water level ​ Putting a certain amount of water and the two will be level 3. Visualizing Stress & Equilibrium ​ Compression, Tension, Bending, Shear, and Torsion ○​ Tension: Pulling forces that elongate materials (e.g., cables, ropes). ○​ Compression: Pushing forces that shorten materials (e.g., arches, columns). ○​ Bending: Combination of tension (top) and compression (bottom) in a beam. ​ Minimum Structure (Tensegrity) ○​ Kenneth Snelson’s tensegrity sculptures ​ Tensegrity (Tensional Integrity) is a structural system where isolated rigid components (struts) are held in place by a network of continuous tensioned cables. ​ This design creates lightweight yet strong structures, balancing compression (struts) and tension (cables) for stability without relying on traditional supports. ​ The concept was influenced by Buckminster Fuller, who explored minimal structure with maximum strength, influencing architectural and engineering applications. ○​ Blur Building as an example ​ The Blur Building (Swiss Expo 2002) utilizes tensegrity principles in its construction, featuring rectilinear struts and diagonal rods cantilevered over the lake for support.  ​ Walkways and ramps interweave through the structure, providing both access and counterbalance to maintain stability. ​ The pavilion is wrapped in an artificial cloud created by filtered lake water mist, dispersed through 13,000 fog nozzles. ​ A built-in weather station automatically adjusts the mist output based on temperature, humidity, wind speed, and direction, making the structure highly adaptive to climatic conditions. ​ Sense of Balance & Equilibrium ○​ Inner Ear: ​ The inner ear, located in the temporal bone, contains a labyrinth filled with fluid, responsible for balance. ​ It consists of: ​ Vestibular duct (balance) ​ Cochlea (hearing organ) ​ Three semicircular canals (perpendicular to each other, aligned with X, Y, and Z axes) ​ How Balance Works ​ The semicircular canals are filled with fluid that moves when the head turns. ​ Saccule & Utricle detect linear movement and acceleration: ○​ Saccule detects vertical motion (e.g., going up or down in an elevator).  ○​ Utricle detects horizontal motion (e.g., moving forward in a car). ​ Both have calcium-carbonate masses (calcule) that shift, stimulating sensory cells. ​ Dynamic Interaction with the Body ​ The balance system works with vision to help orient us in the world. ​ Gymnasts develop refined balance, but it peaks at a certain age. ​ Astronauts in orbit experience motion sickness (space adaptation syndrome) due to weightlessness affecting fluid movement. ​ Aviation museum example demonstrates balance mechanisms. ​ Perception & Orientation ​ Balance helps determine whether objects are upright, leaning, or horizontal, using the horizon as a reference. ​ Crista Ampullaris, found in the semicircular canals, detects rotational movements: ○​ Hair cells are embedded in a gel-like structure (cupula). ○​ When spinning, the fluid swirls, displacing the cupula and stimulating hair cells, causing dizziness. ​ Alignment & Joint Movement ​ The organ of balance covers all degrees of movement in the body.  ​ Joints like ankles, knees, elbows, shoulders, and jaw should align with the balance system for stability. ​ Sensitivity to invisible forces helps maintain posture and movement control. 4. The Earth, Solar Relations & Timekeeping ​ The Earth ○​ The Earth is an interconnected, living, and breathing organism that influences and interacts with its surroundings. ○​ Imagination & Intuition are essential for understanding and applying structural and natural principles. ○​ Archimedes' Law of the Lever: ​ Describes how a beam balances when weights are distributed at different points. ​ A classical example of a real-world problem that is best understood through abstract mathematical reasoning. ​ Archimedes was the first to formalize this concept, building upon the work of Euclid and other mathematicians. ​ The law highlights the idea of an invisible field—the unseen forces that govern balance and mechanics. ​ Latitude & Longitude ○​ Latitude: ​ The angular distance of a place north or south of the earth's equator, usually expressed in degrees and minutes.  ○​ Longitude: ​ The angular distance of a place east or west of the “Prime Meridian,” which passes through Greenwich England, usually expressed in degrees and minutes. ​ Earth’s Magnetic Field ○​ Remember that when you have the presence of magnetism, you also have electricity. ○​ They are both bound together. This is also within your body! ○​ Visualizing the complex double rotations. Similar to a spinning top. ​ Earth’s Three Poles 1.​ Geographic North Pole ○​ The fixed point at the top of the Earth's axis of rotation. ○​ Used as a reference for navigation and geography. 2.​ North Magnetic Pole ○​ The point where Earth's magnetic field lines point vertically downward. ○​ Moves over time due to changes in Earth's molten iron core. ○​ It is used for compass navigation, but its location shifts gradually. 3.​ North Geomagnetic Pole (Not Included on Test) ○​ A theoretical bar magnet at the Earth's core that best represents the observed magnetic field. ○​ It differs from the magnetic pole's actual location and is calculated based on the Earth's dipole field. ○​ Has historically shifted over time due to fluid movements in Earth's core.  ○​ Key Insights: ​ Earth's magnetic field is dynamic, meaning the North-South orientation has shifted slightly throughout history. ​ Fluidic rocks (molten minerals in Earth's mantle) are sensitive to the magnetic field, recording past shifts in Earth's magnetism. ​ Geological evidence suggests that Earth's magnetic poles have reversed multiple times in history. ​ Dynamic Earth-Moon-Sun Relationship ○​ Timekeeping & Earth's Rotation ​ The Earth’s 24-hour rotation around its axis creates day and night cycles. ​ Sundials & shadow sticks were early tools used to track time based on the sun’s position. ○​ Seasons & Earth's Tilt (23.5°) ​ The Earth is tilted at 23.5°, affecting how sunlight reaches different parts of the planet. ​ This tilt, combined with Earth's orbit, creates seasonal changes. ○​ Key Solar Events & Dates ​ Solstices (Longest & Shortest Days of the Year) ​ June 21-22 (Summer Solstice - Northern Hemisphere) ○​ Longest day of the year, North Pole tilts toward the sun. ○​ Sun is at its highest point in the sky. ​ December 22 (Winter Solstice - Northern Hemisphere)  ○​ Shortest day of the year, North Pole tilts away from the sun. ○​ Sun is at its lowest point in the sky. ​ Equinoxes (Equal Day & Night) ​ March 21 (Spring Equinox) & September 22 (Autumn Equinox) ○​ Sun is directly above the equator, creating equal hours of daylight and darkness worldwide. ○​ The Moon, The Earth, & The Tides ​ The gravitational pull of the moon affects Earth's oceans, creating tides. ​ The Bay of Fundy is an extreme example, showing some of the highest tidal changes on Earth. ​ The Earth’s rotation and moon’s gravitational force work together to create tidal cycles. ○​ Sunrise & Sunset Changes ​ Throughout the year, sunrise and sunset times shift, depending on Earth’s position in its orbit. ​ These shifts affect daylight duration, impacting agriculture, timekeeping, and daily activities. ​ The Subsolar Point & Shadows ○​ Subsolar points are locations where the sun’s rays hit the Earth at a perfect 90° angle.  ○​ During the March and September equinoxes, the subsolar point crosses the equator. ○​ At these points, shadows disappear because they are directly beneath objects or a person’s body. ○​ True or False: There are no shadows? ​ False – Shadows still exist but are directly underneath. ​ True – No visible shadows are cast. ○​ Ancient civilizations used this celestial phenomenon to calculate the Earth’s radius and rotational speed. ​ Energy Conservation Strategies 1.​ South facing glazing (windows or glass areas) with long east-west orientation to maximize heat gain in winter. 2.​ Tinted thermal mass concrete floor slab provides passive solar heat in winter, the concrete floor absorbs the heat from the sun during the day and releases it at night when it is needed 3.​ Roof profile (angle) maximizes solar penetration in winter 4.​ South roof overhang minimizes solar penetration in summer 5.​ Low operable windows on the east and west sides draw in cool air from shaded porches in summer 6.​ High-operable windows on the south elevation exhaust warm air from the building in the summer.  ○​ What is achieved by doing this? ​ Regulated temperatures ​ Earth from a Broader Perspective ○​ The Earth rotates once every 24 hours, creating day and night cycles. ○​ It is tilted at 23.5°, which affects seasonal changes throughout the year. ○​ Earth follows an elliptical orbit, not a perfect circle. ○​ Aphelion (July): Earth is farthest from the sun. ○​ Perihelion (January): Earth is closest to the sun.  ○​ The sun is not at the exact center of Earth’s orbit, influencing seasonal variations. ​ Subsolar Point & Lahaina Noon *** ○​ Lahaina noon - twice every year, shadows disappear, indicating the source of light. ○​ The subsolar point is the exact location on any planet where the sun is directly ahead, and the sun's rays hit the surface at exactly 90 degrees. This causes the showdown to fall directly below an object. 5. Historical and Contemporary Structures ​ Capilla San Bernardo, Nicolas Campodonico (2015) ○​ A small chapel built on a 10,000 m² site in a rural area. ○​ Dedicated to the local patron saint and designed to blend with nature. ○​ Constructed using recycled materials from a dismantled house and yard. ○​ No electricity – relies entirely on natural light and environmental conditions. ○​ Features a vertical and horizontal pole, casting moving shadows across the curved interior. ○​ These shadows form a ritualistic cross, creating a spiritual and immersive atmosphere. ​ Memorial Hall, Canadian War Museum (2007) ○​ Designed as a "Place to Remember", honoring Canada's military history and sacrifices.  ○​ The Memorial Hall is a solemn space for reflection, emphasizing the passage of time and remembrance. ○​ Concrete walls, textured with offset rectangular patterns, resemble the rows of grave markers in military cemeteries, reinforcing themes of loss and memory. ○​ A single artifact, the headstone from the grave of Canada’s Unknown Soldier, stands alone in the space, symbolizing the countless fallen soldiers. ○​ On November 11th at exactly 11:00 AM (Remembrance Day), a precisely positioned ray of sunlight enters the hall, illuminating the headstone, creating a poignant and symbolic moment of remembrance. ○​ The museum’s architecture integrates historical narrative with spatial experience, using light, materiality, and symbolism to deepen emotional and historical connections. ​ The School of Athens (Raphael Sanzio, 1509-1510) ○​ A fresco that symbolizes the wisdom of ancient Greece and its influence on Western civilization. ○​ Represents Philosophy, Theology, Law, and the Arts, illustrating the intellectual foundations of the Renaissance. ○​ Highlights two contrasting worldviews through Plato and Aristotle: ​ Plato (Red = Fire, Purple = Air) → Transcendence & abstract thought (pointing upward). ​ Aristotle (Blue = Water, Brown = Earth) → Empirical knowledge & grounded reality (gesturing forward).  ○​ The painting reflects the struggle and unity of these ideas, shaping the spirit of Western civilization. ​ BIM (Building Information Modeling): ​ A multilayered process that engages several tools, techniques, and project contracts involving the generation and management of the digital representations of physical and functional characteristics of project sites. The generated computer files are exchanged through the network of participants to support the decision-making process related to a project that is to be constructed. ○​ The Oculus ○​ The Museum of the Future ​ Sky Gate by Isamu Noguchi ○​ A sculptural landmark in Honolulu by Isamu Noguchi (1904-1988). ○​ Designed in response to the wind, sky, and mountains of its location. ○​ Serves as a community gathering space. ○​ Symbolizes a gateway between Earth and the cosmos, aligning with the Subsolar Point. ​ Inca Rope Bridges ○​ Used braided ropes to create strong, flexible bridges. ○​ Demonstrates tension-based structures used for centuries. ​ Rope Construction & Evolution: ​ Braiding & twisting techniques strengthen rope structures.  ​ Progressed from fiber rope to steel cable and synthetic fiber for modern use. ​ The Cantilever & Richard Rogers Drawing Gallery ○​ Last work by Richard Rogers, designed as a floating structure. ○​ Cantilevered form is supported by four small footings, maximizing views. ​ Alejandro Aravena’s "Chairless" – Minimum Structure ○​ Strap-based seating support, inspired by Ayoreo Indigenous people. ○​ Distributes body weight, reducing strain on the back and thighs. Video References (Must Watch) 1.​ The Homunculus – Sensory & Motor Mapping in the Brain ○​ Video Link 2.​ BIM & The Oculus World Trade Center Hub – YouTube 3.​ Museum of the Future – YouTube 4.​ Memorial Hall, Canadian War Museum – YouTube 5.​ Capilla San Bernardo, Argentina – Vimeo 6.​ Lahaina Noon and Sky Gate by Isamu Noguchi – YouTube 7.​ Inca Rope Bridges – YouTube Study Tips  ​ Review Lecture Notes: Focus on structural principles, material applications, and historical contexts. ​ Watch All Videos: Understand key case studies and structural behaviors. ​ Practice Load Calculations: Identify load paths, types, and structural reactions. ​ Memorize Key Dates & Structures: Important historical and contemporary buildings. ​ Understand Conceptual Applications: How principles apply to real-world architecture. Good luck with your test preparation!