Biological Studies on Memory and Behaviour PDF

**Studies** **Biological** **The relationship between brain and behaviour** **Research method AND ethical considerations -- Milner 1966 -- case study, informed consent** Milner 1966 **Aim** To investigate the effects of the removal of HM\'s medial temporal lobe (including the hippocampus) on memory formation, specifically the role of the hippocampus in transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory. **Method** - This longitudinal case study utilized method triangulation to gather data over several decades: - Psychometric testing: IQ tests revealed that HM's intelligence was above average. - Direct observation: Observations of HM's behavior and daily functioning. - Interviews: Conducted with both HM and his family members to understand his memory deficits and overall condition. - Cognitive testing: Memory recall tests and learning tasks, such as reverse mirror drawing, to assess his memory capabilities and motor skill learning. - MRI scanning: In 1992 and 2003, Corkin conducted brain imaging to identify the extent of brain damage and its effects on memory processes. **Findings --** The hippocampus plays a critical role in converting short-term memories into long-term memories, but it is not the site of permanent memory storage. **Hormones and pheromones and their effects on behaviour** **Newcomer et al -- protection from harm AND true laboratory** A hormone is a chemical substance produced by endocrine glands and released into the bloodstream to regulate various physiological and behavioral processes. **Aim**\ To investigate whether high levels of the stress hormone cortisol interfere with verbal declarative memory. **Method** - Design: Double-blind, matched-pairs laboratory experiment. - Participants: Employees or students at Washington University Medical Center who passed a clinical screening (exclusion criteria: pregnancy, mental illness, head trauma, or corticosteroid treatment). - Procedure: Participants were randomly allocated to one of three conditions for four days: 1. High cortisol group: Received 160 mg of cortisol daily, mimicking cortisol levels during major stress events. 2. Low cortisol group: Received 40 mg of cortisol daily, mimicking cortisol levels during minor stress events. 3. Placebo group: Received placebo tablets with no active ingredients. - Participants listened to and recalled prose passages of equal difficulty on three occasions: 4. Baseline test: Before cortisol ingestion to control for individual differences. 5. After one day of treatment. 6. After four days of treatment. **Findings** - High levels of cortisol impaired verbal declarative memory, with participants in the high cortisol group performing worst in recalling the prose passages. - The low cortisol and placebo groups showed no significant differences in performance. - Memory performance in the high cortisol group returned to normal after stopping cortisol ingestion, indicating the effect was temporary. - Practice effects likely explained improved memory in the placebo and low-dose groups over time. **Key Ethical Consideration**\ Protection from harm: Participants experienced temporary memory impairment due to cortisol ingestion. However, they provided informed consent, and the effects were reversible, with no long-term harm observed. **The relationship between genetics and behaviour** **Research method -- Kendler -- correlation** Correlation is a statistical technique measuring the mathematical likelihood of a significant relationship between two variables. It does not imply causation but demonstrates the degree of association. Zygotes twins - Monozygotic (MZ) twins are identical twins, while dizygotic (DZ) twins are fraternal twins **Aim** Determine level of heritability of depression. **Method** - Twin study of over 15,000 zygotic twin pairs from the Swedish national twin registry born - Lifetime major depression was assessed at personal telephone interview by modified DSM-IV criteria - Over 8000 twins met the criteria for MDD diagnosis - 322 twins voluntarily discussed antidepressant treatment - Asked about their shared and individual environments Results -- females experience depression more than men, more likely in monozygotic twins, heritability of depression is estimated to be 38%. Genetics don't play a large role in **Ethical consideration -- caspi et al** The key ethical consideration in this study is informed consent. The participants were asked to provide genetic and psychological data, so they should have been fully informed of the nature and purpose of the study, and their participation should have been voluntary. Additionally, ensuring the confidentiality of their personal and genetic data is crucial in maintaining ethical standards. The 5-HTT gene regulates serotonin reuptake in the brain, which is linked to mood and behavior. According to the serotonin hypothesis, low serotonin levels may contribute to depression. **Aim:**\ Caspi et al. (2003) aimed to investigate whether a mutation in the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTT) interacts with stressful life events to increase the risk of developing depression. **Method:**\ 847 New Zealand 26-year-olds were divided into three groups based on their 5-HTT allele types (two short, one short/one long, two long). They completed a questionnaire on stressful life events and were assessed for depression. **Findings:**\ Participants with one or more short alleles of the 5-HTT gene showed more depression symptoms in response to stressful life events. This effect was strongest for those who experienced more stress. Those with long alleles were more resilient and less likely to develop depression, even with stress. **Techniques used to study the brain in relation to behaviour** Corkin (1997) analysis of HM's MRI scans showing damage to the hippocampus. MRI stands for Magnetic Resonance Imaging, a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the brain\'s structure. It provides cross-sectional pictures of the brain, allowing researchers to observe any abnormalities or damage. If a part of the brain is missing or damaged, it will appear as empty or darker areas on the MRI scan. In this study, MRI was used to check for any differences in H.M.\'s brain structure, particularly to verify the extent of damage to the hippocampus and surrounding areas, which were thought to be responsible for his memory loss. **Aim:**\ To investigate the extent of hippocampal and medial temporal lobe damage in H.M.'s brain and determine whether this damage could explain his severe memory loss. **Method:**\ Two MRI scans were conducted on H.M. in 1992 and 1993. Before the first scan, H.M. completed an IQ test (showing normal intelligence) and a memory test (showing severe amnesia with a memory quotient 37 points lower than his IQ). **Results:**\ The MRI scans revealed that the lesioning of H.M.'s brain was 3cm smaller than originally estimated by Scoville. The damage did not extend as far into the posterior hippocampus, but there was damage to the uncus and amygdala. About 50% of the posterior hippocampus remained, though it had shrunk significantly on the right side. **Conclusions:**\ The remaining hippocampal tissue in the left temporal lobe was insufficient for normal memory function, highlighting the importance of the hippocampus and medial temporal lobe in memory. **Localization - Milner** Localization of function is the theory that specific parts of the brain are responsible for certain behaviours or cognitive processes. Localization can be carried out by studying brain damage - for example, Milner investigated the role of the hippocampus in memory formation. It may also be studied by seeing where neuroplasticity is happening. **Aim** To investigate the effects of the removal of HM\'s medial temporal lobe (including the hippocampus) on memory formation, specifically the role of the hippocampus in transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory. **Method** - This longitudinal case study utilized method triangulation to gather data over several decades: - Psychometric testing: IQ tests revealed that HM's intelligence was above average. - Direct observation: Observations of HM's behavior and daily functioning. - Interviews: Conducted with both HM and his family members to understand his memory deficits and overall condition. - Cognitive testing: Memory recall tests and learning tasks, such as reverse mirror drawing, to assess his memory capabilities and motor skill learning. - MRI scanning: In 1992 and 2003, Corkin conducted brain imaging to identify the extent of brain damage and its effects on memory processes. **Findings --** The hippocampus plays a critical role in converting short-term memories into long-term memories, but it is not the site of permanent memory storage. **Neuroplasticity - Maguire et al** Neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to change itself in response to environmental demands. The brain is able to change through the making and breaking of synaptic connections between neurons. Every time we learn something new, the neurons connect via synapses to create a new trace in the brain. **Aim:**\ To investigate whether the brains of London taxi drivers differ from those of non-taxi drivers due to the unique spatial demands of navigating the city for many hours. **Method:**\ The study involved 16 right-handed male London taxi drivers who had completed the \"Knowledge\" test and had been driving for at least 1.5 years. They were compared to 50 right-handed male controls who did not drive taxis. MRI scans were taken of both groups, and the data was analyzed using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) to measure grey matter density and pixel counting to assess the size of the hippocampus. The study was correlational and single-blind, with the researcher unaware of which scans belonged to taxi drivers or controls. **Findings:**\ The study found that taxi drivers had significantly larger posterior hippocampi compared to controls, with a smaller anterior hippocampus. The volume of the right posterior hippocampus correlated with the number of years spent as a taxi driver. This suggests that the hippocampus, specifically the posterior region, may adapt in response to the environmental demands of spatial navigation, supporting the idea of neuroplasticity. The findings demonstrate neuroplasticity, the brain\'s ability to change and reorganize in response to environmental demands. The increased size of the posterior hippocampus in taxi drivers suggests that the brain adapts to the complex spatial navigation required in their profession. This supports the idea that experience and environmental stimuli can lead to physical changes in brain structure, particularly in areas involved in memory and spatial awareness. **Neurotransmitters and their effects on behaviour - Antonova et al (2011)** Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are transported via electrical impulses from the presynaptic neuron to the post-synaptic neuron across the synaptic cleft **Aim:**\ The aim of Antonova's (2011) study was to investigate whether scopolamine, an acetylcholine antagonist, affects hippocampal activity in the creation of spatial memory in humans, supporting earlier research by Rogers and Kesner on the role of acetylcholine in memory encoding. **Procedure** - 20 healthy male adults (mean age 28) participated. - Randomly assigned to two conditions: scopolamine injection or placebo (double-blind). - Participants injected 70-90 minutes before the experiment. - Tested using the \"Arena task,\" a virtual reality game designed to test spatial memory. - In the task, participants navigated an arena to find a pole. - After learning the location of the pole, the screen went blank for 30 seconds to rehearse the path. - Participants had to use spatial memory to find the pole again from a new starting point. - Participants trained to use the joystick and understand the task. - Brain activity measured using fMRI during six trials. - The study used a repeated measures design: participants returned 3-4 weeks later and completed the opposite condition (scopolamine or placebo). **Results:**\ The results showed that when participants received scopolamine, there was a significant reduction in hippocampal activation compared to the placebo condition. This suggests that acetylcholine plays a crucial role in the encoding of spatial memories in humans, supporting findings from previous research in animals, such as the work by Rogers and Kesner (2003) and Piccart and d\'Hooge (2008). This research emphasizes the role of acetylcholine in memory and spatial navigation. In both animal and human studies, the neurotransmitter acetylcholine is shown to be essential for the encoding of new spatial memories, as scopolamine, which inhibits acetylcholine, impaired this process. This supports the view that acetylcholine is vital for cognitive functions related to memory formation, particularly spatial memory. **Hormones and pheromones and their effects on behaviour -- Newcomer** **Newcomer et al -- protection from harm AND true laboratory** A hormone is a chemical substance produced by endocrine glands and released into the bloodstream to regulate various physiological and behavioral processes. **Aim**\ To investigate whether high levels of the stress hormone cortisol interfere with verbal declarative memory. **Method** - Design: Double-blind, matched-pairs laboratory experiment. - Participants: Employees or students at Washington University Medical Center who passed a clinical screening (exclusion criteria: pregnancy, mental illness, head trauma, or corticosteroid treatment). - Procedure: Participants were randomly allocated to one of three conditions for four days: 7. High cortisol group: Received 160 mg of cortisol daily, mimicking cortisol levels during major stress events. 8. Low cortisol group: Received 40 mg of cortisol daily, mimicking cortisol levels during minor stress events. 9. Placebo group: Received placebo tablets with no active ingredients. - Participants listened to and recalled prose passages of equal difficulty on three occasions: 10. Baseline test: Before cortisol ingestion to control for individual differences. 11. After one day of treatment. 12. After four days of treatment. 13. A follow-up test on day six ensured there were no long-term effects **Findings** - High levels of cortisol impaired verbal declarative memory, with participants in the high cortisol group performing worst in recalling the prose passages. - The low cortisol and placebo groups showed no significant differences in performance. - Memory performance in the high cortisol group returned to normal after stopping cortisol ingestion, indicating the effect was temporary. Practice effects likely explained improved memory in the placebo and low-dose groups over time. **Pheromones and their effects on behaviour -- Hare et al 2017** - A pheromone is a chemical that is secreted by glands to act outside of the body, unlike hormones which are secreted internally from the endocrine glands into the bloodstream **Aim:** To investigate whether AND and EST play a role in the perception of gender and level of attractiveness of the opposite sex. **Participants**: 94 (51 female; 43 male) white, heterosexual adults (mean age = 24 years) from the University of Western Australia. **Procedure: ** - The participants took part in two tasks on a computer while being exposed to the scent of either AND or EST via a cotton ball taped underneath their nose. In the experimental condition the scent was disguised with clove oil - In the control condition only clove oil was applied to the cotton ball - This study used a repeated measures, double-blind design and employed counterbalancing i.e. half of the participants experienced the experimental condition followed by the control condition and the other half vice versa - For task 1, the participants were shown 5 images of morphed gender-neutral faces (the blending male and female faces together) and were asked to identify the gender of each face - For task 2 the participants were shown opposite-sex faces (all Caucasian, with only the hairline and face showing) - They were asked to rate the level of attractiveness of each photo and the likelihood of each person shown being unfaithful using a rating scale from 1-10 (10 indicating a high level of attraction and a strong likelihood that the person would be unfaithful) **Results:** The research was inconclusive: the researchers found no evidence that AND or EST affected gender perception or attractiveness rating or unfaithfulness rating. **Evolutionary explanation for behavior -- ronay and von hippel** To determine if men would take greater risks in the presence of an attractive female, than in the presence of a male. In addition, they wanted to see if testosterone played a role in this behavior. They hypothesized that they would take greater risks as a result. Intrasexual selection is a type of sexual selection that occurs when members of the same sex compete for access to mates. **Procedure (Bullet Points):** - Sample: 96 young adult Australian male skateboarders (mean age 21.58), recruited from skateboard parks. - Conditions: 43 participants in the male-researcher condition, 53 in the female-researcher condition. - Tests conducted between 2--6 pm. - Tasks: - Participants asked to perform one \"easy trick\" and one \"difficult trick\" (successful about 50% of the time) 10 times each. - After a break, participants performed the same tricks in front of the same male or an attractive female researcher (blind to hypothesis) 10 more times. - Measurement: - Success, crash landing, or aborted attempt coded to assess risk-taking behavior. - Saliva samples collected for testosterone measurement. - Heart rate measured using a Nordic sports watch before and throughout the task. **Results (Bullet Points):** - Participants took greater risks (fewer aborted attempts) on difficult tricks in the presence of the female researcher. - Testosterone levels were higher when participants performed in front of the female researcher compared to the male researcher. - No significant difference in heart rate between the two groups. - The study suggested that testosterone may influence increased risk-taking behavior in the presence of an attractive woman. **HL Biological -- animal research** **[The relationship between brain and behaviour]** **Rozenzweig, bennet and diamond** **Aim:**\ The aim of the study by Rosenzweig, Bennet, and Diamond was to investigate whether environmental factors, such as a rich or impoverished environment, would affect the development of neurons in the cerebral cortex. **Method:**\ Three groups of rats from a common litter were randomly assigned to one of three environments: 1. **Control condition (CC):** Three rats in a standard cage. 2. **Impoverished condition (IC):** Rats placed in individual cages without toys or stimuli. 3. **Enriched condition (EC):** 10-12 rats in a cage with various stimulus objects to explore. Each group spent 30-60 days in their respective environments before being euthanized for brain examination. **Findings:** - The rats in the **EC condition** showed increased cortical thickness and brain weight compared to those in the **IC condition**. - Rats in the EC group also exhibited greater neuronal activity in the cerebral cortex, specifically in neurons associated with acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory. **[Hormones and pheromones and their effects on behaviour ]** **Sapolsky (1990, 2005)** A hormone is a chemical substance produced by endocrine glands and released into the bloodstream to regulate various physiological and behavioral processes. **Aim:**\ To investigate the effect of increased cortisol levels on the hippocampus. **Type of Experiment:**\ True experiment. **Animal:**\ Vervet monkeys. **Conditions:** 1. **Experimental condition:** Implanted cortisol pellet into the hippocampi. 2. **Control condition:** Implanted cholesterol pellet. **Procedure:** 1. Monkeys were kept in normal laboratory conditions. 2. After one year, the monkeys were euthanized. 3. The brains were autopsied, and the effects of the cortisol pellets on the hippocampus were measured. **Results:** - **Cortisol pellet group:** - Significant damage to neurons in the hippocampus. - Dendritic atrophy, including a decrease in the length and branching of dendrites. - Inhibition of neurogenesis (the growth of new neurons). **Conclusion:**\ Although cortisol is known to aid memory consolidation in the short term, prolonged cortisol secretion due to long-term stress can lead to hippocampal damage, impairing neural function and neurogenesis. **[The relationship between genetics and behaviour ]** **Weaver et al 2004** **Aim:**To study how the type of nurturing rats receive from their mothers in early life affects the way their brain responds to stress later in life. **Research Method:**\ A combination of methods: - Quasi experiment (comparison of pre-existing groups). - Rat adoption study. - Experiment with independent measures design. **Measuring Variables:** - Genetic mapping technology to determine patterns of methylation in gene sequences. - Stress response measured by placing rats in a Plexiglass restrainer for 20 minutes and measuring corticosterone (stress hormone) levels in blood samples taken before and after the procedure. **Participants:** Lab-bred rats. **Procedure:** 1. Lab-bred rats with varying levels of maternal nurturing (low or high licking & grooming, and arched-back nursing) during their first week of life were compared. 2. Rats were placed in a stressful situation (confined in a tube for 20 minutes), and corticosterone levels were measured. 3. In a second experiment, rats received different levels of nurturing from other rats (after being separated from their mothers) to examine how this affected stress responses. **Findings:** - Rats that received less nurturing in early life had suppressed expression of the glucocorticoid receptor gene (the gene cortisol binds to). - The genetic sequences did not differ, but less nurtured rats had fewer glucocorticoid receptors and thus released more stress hormones. **Conclusions:** - Gene suppression affects behavior, showing that not only inheritance but also environmental factors like maternal nurturing influence gene expression. - Vulnerability to stress may be determined by epigenetic factors, such as the methylation of a gene responsible for the production of stress hormone receptors. - The effects of methylation in early life can persist into adulthood, impacting behavior. **Cognitive approach -- essay** **Cognitive processing** Warrington and shallice -- informed consent, case study. Working memory model **Aim:**\ To investigate the relationship between short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) when STM is impaired. **Research Method:**\ Case study. **Participant:**\ Patient KF, who suffered brain damage in a motorcycle accident. His LTM was intact, but his STM was impaired. **Procedure:**\ Researchers directly observed KF's behavior and administered memory recall tests. KF was asked to recall lists of words and numbers and perform learning tasks. The tests presented information both orally and visually to assess his memory performance. **Results:** - KF showed impaired STM for verbal information, forgetting words and numbers presented orally. - However, he could remember the same information when it was presented visually. - His impairment was specific to verbal information, suggesting separate memory stores for verbal and visual information. **Implications:**\ This finding supports the idea of two distinct memory systems (verbal and visual) and provides evidence for the Working Memory Model (WMM). **Ethical Considerations:** - KF's identity was kept confidential. - Informed consent was obtained from both KF and his parents before participation in the study. Top of Form Bottom of Form **Glanzer and cunitz -- experiment, deception. Multi store model** **Aim:**\ To investigate the recency effect in memory recall and how it is affected by a delay. **Research Method:**\ Repeated measures design. **Participants:**\ 46 army enlisted men. **Procedure:** 1. Participants were first given three 5-word practice lists to familiarize themselves with the procedure. 2. They were then shown 15 fifteen-word lists. Each word was displayed for 1 second with a 2-second interval between words, while the experimenter read each word aloud. 3. After each list, participants either saw a \# (immediate recall condition) or a number (delayed recall condition). - **Immediate recall:** Participants wrote down as many words as they could recall. - **Delayed recall (10 seconds):** Participants counted from a number for 10 seconds before recalling words. - **Delayed recall (30 seconds):** Participants counted for 30 seconds before recalling words. 4. The order of word presentation was randomized for each participant. **Results:** - **Immediate recall:** Both the **primacy** and **recency effects** were observed. - **10-second delay:** A significant reduction in the recency effect was observed. - **30-second delay:** There was \"no trace\" of the recency effect, but the primacy effect remained. **Conclusion:**\ The recency effect is influenced by the length of the delay. A short delay (10 seconds) reduces the recency effect, and a longer delay (30 seconds) eliminates it entirely, suggesting that the recency effect is associated with short-term memory and can be disrupted by a distraction task. Reliability of cognitive processing Loftus and palmer -- informed consent, true lab **Aim:**\ To investigate the role of leading questions in influencing the memories of eyewitnesses, specifically in relation to estimating the speed of cars involved in a traffic accident. Reconstructive memory **Research Method:** experiment. Independent measures design - **Participants:** 45 students were divided into five groups of nine and shown seven traffic accident films, each ranging from 5 to 30 seconds in length. **Procedure:** 1. Participants watched traffic accident films and then provided an account of what they had seen. 2. Afterward, participants answered a questionnaire that included a critical question asking them to estimate the speed of the cars. The key question varied in wording, such as: "About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" The verb \"hit\" was replaced with words like \"smashed,\" \"collided,\" \"bumped,\" and \"contacted\" across different groups. 3. The dependent variable was the speed estimate given by participants. **Results:** - The mean speed estimates were highest for the \"smashed\" group (40.8 mph) and lowest for the \"contacted\" group (31.8 mph). - The researchers found a significant difference in speed estimates, with the results being statistically significant (p ≤ 0.005). - The use of a stronger verb like "smashed" led to higher speed estimates, suggesting that the wording of questions can influence memory recall and estimations. **Conclusion:**\ The study concluded that leading questions, such as those using more intense verbs, can distort memory recall by triggering different cognitive schemas (e.g., the schema of a severe accident), thus altering how the event is remembered. This supports the idea of reconstructive memory, where memories are not static but reconstructed based on external influences like question phrasing. **Ethics - deception** is an ethical consideration in Loftus & Palmer\'s study. Participants were not fully informed that the study\'s goal was to investigate how leading questions could influence memory recall. Instead, they were told they were simply watching traffic accident films and answering related questions. This misled participants about the true purpose of the study.Although deception was used, it is sometimes justified if necessary for the study's integrity and if participants are not harmed. In this case, the researchers likely debriefed participants afterward, explaining the study's purpose and the impact of the leading questions on memory, which is essential for addressing ethical concerns **Neisser and Harsch** **Aim:**\ To determine whether flashbulb memories are susceptible to distortion. **Research Method:** - **Case Study:** Longitudinal, prospective design with method triangulation (questionnaires and interviews). **Participants:**\ 106 Emory University students (initially), with 44 returning for the follow-up (30 women, 14 men). **Procedure:** 1. On the morning after the Challenger disaster (January 28, 1986), students filled out a questionnaire detailing how they heard about the event. 2. 2.5 years later, 44 participants were given the same questionnaire, with additional questions about their confidence in the accuracy of their memories. 3. Semi-structured interviews were conducted a few months later to probe further into discrepancies. 4. Participants were shown their original responses to reflect on inconsistencies. **Results:** - **Discrepancies:** The majority of participants' recollections changed significantly, with an average score of 2.95/7 for accuracy. Only three participants had perfect recall, and 25% did not recall ever filling out the initial questionnaire. - **Confidence:** Despite low accuracy, participants were highly confident in their memories, with an average confidence score of 4.17/5. - **Cues:** Additional cues had little effect on improving accuracy, suggesting that memories were distorted. **Conclusion:**\ Flashbulb memories are prone to distortion, even though individuals have high confidence in their recollections. This challenges the belief that these memories are immune to forgetting or distortion. **Ethical Considerations:** **Protection from harm-** Minimal psychological distress: The study focused on memories of a public event rather than personal trauma, reducing the risk of emotional distress **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** - **Ecological Validity:** Naturalistic study with real-world events, making the findings applicable to real-life memory distortion. - **Method Triangulation:** Use of both questionnaires and interviews increases the validity of the results. - **Limitations:** - **Participant Attrition:** Some participants dropped out, which reduced the sample size. - **Confounding Variables:** The lack of control over exposure to media or discussion of the event between the two time points is a limitation. - **Demand Characteristics:** Participants' confidence ratings may have been influenced by the desire to appear accurate or socially acceptable. **Emotion and cognition** **Sharot -- informed consent, quasi experiment** **Aim:**\ To investigate the potential role of biological factors, particularly the amygdala, in flashbulb memories. **Research Method:** - **Quasi-Experiment:** Participants were placed in an fMRI scanner to observe brain activity while recalling memories associated with the 9/11 terrorist attacks. **Participants:**\ 24 participants who were in New York City during the 9/11 attacks. They were recruited through advertisements and compensated for participation. **Procedure:** 1. Participants were placed in an fMRI scanner and presented with word cues, along with either \"Summer\" or \"September,\" to link the words to either personal summer events or 9/11 memories. 2. Brain activity was monitored as participants recalled both summer memories (serving as a baseline) and memories related to 9/11. 3. After the scanning session, participants rated their memories for vividness, detail, confidence in accuracy, and emotional arousal, and wrote descriptions of their personal memories. 4. Half of the participants reported having flashbulb memories, which were more detailed and accompanied by greater confidence in their accuracy. **Results:** - **Amygdala Activation:** - Participants who were closer to the World Trade Center showed higher amygdala activation when recalling 9/11 memories compared to summer memories. - Those further away from the event showed similar amygdala activity for both types of memories. - The strength of amygdala activation was positively correlated with the vividness and confidence of flashbulb memories. - **Proximity and Memory:** - Participants closer to the World Trade Center included more specific details in their written memories of 9/11, suggesting a stronger emotional connection to the event. **Conclusion:**\ The study supports the idea that the amygdala plays a role in the vividness and emotional intensity of flashbulb memories. Proximity to the event appears to increase the engagement of the amygdala, contributing to more detailed and confident memories. **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** - **Biological Evidence:** The study highlights the role of the amygdala in emotional memories, providing evidence for the localization of function in the brain. - **Correlation with Emotional Intensity:** The findings suggest a biological basis for the vividness and emotional intensity of flashbulb memories. - **Limitations:** - **Correlational Nature:** The study does not establish a cause-and-effect relationship between amygdala activation and flashbulb memories. - **Artificial Setting:** The fMRI environment and the nature of the task may limit the ecological validity of the study. - **Cultural Bias:** The sample was small and culturally biased, as it was made up of individuals from an individualistic culture. The findings may not be generalizable to collectivistic cultures. - **Limited Scope:** The study does not explain why some people who experience events indirectly (e.g., via television) also report vivid flashbulb memories. Neisser and harsh -- protection from Harm **Aim:**\ To determine whether flashbulb memories are susceptible to distortion. **Research Method:** - **Case Study:** Longitudinal, prospective design with method triangulation (questionnaires and interviews). **Participants:**\ 106 Emory University students (initially), with 44 returning for the follow-up (30 women, 14 men). **Procedure:** 5. On the morning after the Challenger disaster (January 28, 1986), students filled out a questionnaire detailing how they heard about the event. 6. 2.5 years later, 44 participants were given the same questionnaire, with additional questions about their confidence in the accuracy of their memories. 7. Semi-structured interviews were conducted a few months later to probe further into discrepancies. 8. Participants were shown their original responses to reflect on inconsistencies. **Results:** - **Discrepancies:** The majority of participants' recollections changed significantly, with an average score of 2.95/7 for accuracy. Only three participants had perfect recall, and 25% did not recall ever filling out the initial questionnaire. - **Confidence:** Despite low accuracy, participants were highly confident in their memories, with an average confidence score of 4.17/5. - **Cues:** Additional cues had little effect on improving accuracy, suggesting that memories were distorted. **Conclusion:**\ Flashbulb memories are prone to distortion, even though individuals have high confidence in their recollections. This challenges the belief that these memories are immune to forgetting or distortion. **Ethical Considerations:** **Protection from harm-** Minimal psychological distress: The study focused on memories of a public event rather than personal trauma, reducing the risk of emotional distress **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** - **Ecological Validity:** Naturalistic study with real-world events, making the findings applicable to real-life memory distortion. - **Method Triangulation:** Use of both questionnaires and interviews increases the validity of the results. - **Limitations:** - **Participant Attrition:** Some participants dropped out, which reduced the sample size. - **Confounding Variables:** The lack of control over exposure to media or discussion of the event between the two time points is a limitation. - **Demand Characteristics:** Participants' confidence ratings may have been influenced by the desire to appear accurate or socially acceptable. **Schema theory** A schema is a mental framework or cognitive structure that helps organize and interpret information. These mental representations are based on past experiences and are used to guide current understanding and behaviour Bartlett **Aim:** To investigate how prior knowledge (schemas) and cultural background influence memory recall and whether unfamiliarity with a text leads to distortion of memory. Bartlett hypothesized that memory is reconstructive, shaped by cultural schemas. **Methods:** Participants (British) were told a Native American folk tale, \"The War of the Ghosts,\" unfamiliar to their cultural background. Two conditions were used: 1) *Repeated Reproduction*: Participants recalled the story multiple times over days, weeks, or months. 2) *Serial Reproduction*: Participants retold the story to another person, who then retold it, and so on. Bartlett analyzed the changes in the recalled stories. **Findings:** Both groups showed similar patterns of distortion. Three key processes were observed: 1) *Assimilation*: The story was altered to fit British cultural norms and expectations. 2) *Leveling*: The story became shorter with each retelling, with less important details omitted. 3) *Sharpening*: Details were emphasized or added to make the story more coherent within the participants\' cultural framework. Overall, participants remembered the gist but reconstructed the story, fitting it into their existing schemas. Bartlett concluded that memory is an active, reconstructive process, not a passive reproduction. **Evaluation** - **Strengths:** - Highlighted the reconstructive nature of memory. - Demonstrated the influence of schemas on recall. - Influential in subsequent memory research. - Some ecological validity due to real-world applicability. - Compared two different recall methods (repeated and serial). - **Weaknesses:** - Lack of standardized instructions. - Uncontrolled recall intervals. - Participants not explicitly instructed to be accurate. - Limited control over extraneous variables. - Key finding was a *null result* (no significant difference between conditions), weakening the experimental design. - Doesn\'t directly demonstrate the effect of *culture* on recall. - Assumed cultural unfamiliarity of the story for British participants, rather than directly comparing different cultural groups. - A true test of cultural influence would require a quasi-experiment, comparing recall across cultures, which this study did not do. Even then, causality would be difficult to establish. **Branford and johnson** **Aim:** To investigate the effect of schema activation on comprehension and recall of ambiguous text. Specifically, to see if providing a topic before or after reading the text affects recall. **Methods:** 52 participants were divided into three groups: 1) No Topic (control), 2) Topic After, and 3) Topic Before. All participants heard the same ambiguous passage. The Topic Before group received the topic (\"washing clothes\") before hearing the passage, the Topic After group after, and the No Topic group received no topic. Participants rated their comprehension and then recalled the passage. Recall was scored based on the number of \"idea units\" present in their summaries. **Findings:** The Topic Before group recalled significantly more idea units than the other two groups. The Topic After group performed no better than the No Topic group. Bransford and Johnson concluded that schema activation *before* reading is crucial for comprehension and recall. **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** - Clear aim and procedure. - Controlled lab experiment, high internal validity. - Easily replicable, allowing for reliability checks. - Findings have practical applications in education. - **Weaknesses:** - Independent samples design, potential for participant variability (e.g., prior knowledge of washing clothes) to confound results. A repeated measures design wasn\'t feasible. - Artificial task, low ecological validity. - Difficult to definitively prove that a \"laundry schema\" was activated; other factors (e.g., general memory ability) could have influenced recall. The study does not measure schema activation directly. **Thinking and decision making** **Alter et al** **Aim**: To investigate the **Dual Process Model** via the effect of **disfluency** (**operationalised** using a difficult-to-read font) on S1 and S2 thinking **Participants**: 40 undergraduate students from Princeton University in the USA, obtained via **self-selecting (volunteer) sampling** **Procedure**: - This was an **independent measures design** in which participants were given identical **Cognitive** **Reflection** **Tests** **(CRT)** to answer - The CRT comprised questions that were not inherently difficult, but which required some cognitive energy to solve *e.g. A bat and a ball together cost \$1.10. The bat costs \$1 more than the ball. How much does each cost separately? *The answer is that the bat costs \$1.05 and the ball costs 5 cents but most people are likely to say that the bat costs \$1 and the ball costs 10 cents as this is the quickest, easiest answer (even though it is incorrect) The participants were **randomly** **allocated** to one of two conditions: - The CRT questions presented in a **fluent** (easy-to-read) font (black, 12-point) - The CRT questions presented in a **disfluent** (difficult-to-read) font (grey, italic, 10-point) It was **hypothesised** that the disfluent font would require the participants to concentrate more on what was written which would then trigger S2 thinking which requires **deeper** **processing** than S1. The **dependent** **variable** was measured as the number of correct responses per condition **Results**: Participants in the disfluent condition answered more CRT questions correctly than participants in the fluent condition. **Conclusion**: The hypothesis was supported thus it appears that having to concentrate on a disfluent font may trigger S2 thinking as it requires more cognitive energy and effort than a fluent font requires **Strengths** - Using CRT questions was a suitable means by which to test the DPM, as to answer them correctly requires S2 thinking over S1 thinking, which is what the study aimed to investigate, increasing **internal** **validity** - The DV was measured **quantitatively** which means that the results are easy to compare and **analyse** **statistically** **Limitations** - The sample comprised students from an elite, prestigious university in the USA, making the results difficult to **generalise** to other populations - It is possible that the participants were affected by **demand** **characteristics** e.g. they may have tried to answer the questions with more (or less) effort than they would normally expend in real life Englich and mussweiler **Aim:** To investigate the influence of a prosecutor\'s sentencing recommendation (anchoring bias) on the decisions of judges in a rape case. **Methods:** 19 young trial judges were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: a \"high anchor\" condition (prosecutor recommended 34 months) or a \"low anchor\" condition (prosecutor recommended 2 months). Participants read a case file for an alleged rape and then answered a questionnaire, including questions about the appropriate sentence, their confidence in their decision, and the realism of the case. A pilot study with law students was used to establish a baseline for reasonable sentencing recommendations. **Findings:** Judges in the high anchor condition recommended significantly longer sentences (average 28.70 months) than those in the low anchor condition (average 18.78 months). This supported the hypothesis that sentencing recommendations act as an anchor, influencing judges\' decisions even when they have expertise in the area. **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** - True experiment, allows for cause-and-effect inferences. - Use of a pilot study to establish reasonable anchors and a baseline. - Realistic case study increases ecological validity somewhat. - **Weaknesses:** - Small sample size limits generalizability. - Independent samples design introduces the possibility of participant variability as a confounding variable. - Limited experience of the judges in the sample, so the results may not apply to more experienced judges. **Reliability of cognitive processes** Reconstructive memory, a key concept in IB Psychology, emphasizes that memories are not passively retrieved but actively rebuilt during recall. This reconstruction is influenced by schemas, prior knowledge, emotions, and sociocultural factors, leading to potential distortions and inaccuracies. Understanding this process is crucial for evaluating memory\'s reliability and its implications in areas like eyewitness testimony and the formation of false memories. Can bring in schema Bartlett **Aim:** To investigate how prior knowledge (schemas) and cultural background influence memory recall and whether unfamiliarity with a text leads to distortion of memory. Bartlett hypothesized that memory is reconstructive, shaped by cultural schemas. **Methods:** Participants (British) were told a Native American folk tale, \"The War of the Ghosts,\" unfamiliar to their cultural background. Two conditions were used: 1) *Repeated Reproduction*: Participants recalled the story multiple times over days, weeks, or months. 2) *Serial Reproduction*: Participants retold the story to another person, who then retold it, and so on. Bartlett analyzed the changes in the recalled stories. **Findings:** Both groups showed similar patterns of distortion. Three key processes were observed: 1) *Assimilation*: The story was altered to fit British cultural norms and expectations. 2) *Leveling*: The story became shorter with each retelling, with less important details omitted. 3) *Sharpening*: Details were emphasized or added to make the story more coherent within the participants\' cultural framework. Overall, participants remembered the gist but reconstructed the story, fitting it into their existing schemas. Bartlett concluded that memory is an active, reconstructive process, not a passive reproduction. **Evaluation** - **Strengths:** - Highlighted the reconstructive nature of memory. - Demonstrated the influence of schemas on recall. - Influential in subsequent memory research. - Some ecological validity due to real-world applicability. - Compared two different recall methods (repeated and serial). - **Weaknesses:** - Lack of standardized instructions. - Uncontrolled recall intervals. - Participants not explicitly instructed to be accurate. - Limited control over extraneous variables. - Key finding was a *null result* (no significant difference between conditions), weakening the experimental design. - Doesn\'t directly demonstrate the effect of *culture* on recall. - Assumed cultural unfamiliarity of the story for British participants, rather than directly comparing different cultural groups. - A true test of cultural influence would require a quasi-experiment, comparing recall across cultures, which this study did not do. Even then, causality would be difficult to establish. Loftus and palmer **Aim:**\ To investigate the role of leading questions in influencing the memories of eyewitnesses, specifically in relation to estimating the speed of cars involved in a traffic accident. **Research Method:** experiment. Independent measures design - **Participants:** 45 students were divided into five groups of nine and shown seven traffic accident films, each ranging from 5 to 30 seconds in length. **Procedure:** 4. Participants watched traffic accident films and then provided an account of what they had seen. 5. Afterward, participants answered a questionnaire that included a critical question asking them to estimate the speed of the cars. The key question varied in wording, such as: "About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" The verb \"hit\" was replaced with words like \"smashed,\" \"collided,\" \"bumped,\" and \"contacted\" across different groups. 6. The dependent variable was the speed estimate given by participants. **Results:** - The mean speed estimates were highest for the \"smashed\" group (40.8 mph) and lowest for the \"contacted\" group (31.8 mph). - The researchers found a significant difference in speed estimates, with the results being statistically significant (p ≤ 0.005). - The use of a stronger verb like "smashed" led to higher speed estimates, suggesting that the wording of questions can influence memory recall and estimations. **Conclusion:**\ The study concluded that leading questions, such as those using more intense verbs, can distort memory recall by triggering different cognitive schemas (e.g., the schema of a severe accident), thus altering how the event is remembered. This supports the idea of reconstructive memory, where memories are not static but reconstructed based on external influences like question phrasing. **Biases - Anchoring bias occurs when we rely heavily on the first piece of information we receive** Englich and mussweiler **Aim:** To investigate the influence of anchoring bias on sentencing decisions by judges, specifically whether a prosecutor\'s recommended sentence influences the judge\'s final decision. **Methods:** 19 young trial judges were randomly assigned to either a high-anchor (34-month recommendation) or low-anchor (2-month recommendation) condition. All participants read the same rape case file. They then recommended a sentence and rated their confidence. A pilot study with law students established a baseline average sentence (17.21 months) to help determine appropriate anchors. **Findings:** Judges in the high-anchor condition recommended significantly longer sentences (mean = 28.70 months) than those in the low-anchor condition (mean = 18.78 months). This supports the idea that initial information (the anchor) heavily influences decision-making, even for legal professionals. **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** True experiment, allowing for cause-and-effect conclusions. Pilot study provided a baseline and helped establish appropriate anchors. - **Weaknesses:** Small sample size, limiting generalizability. Independent samples design introduces the possibility of participant variability as a confounding variable. The sample\'s limited courtroom experience may restrict the findings\' applicability to more experienced judges. Strack and mussweiler **Aim:** To investigate the influence of anchoring bias on decision-making, specifically how implausible high and low anchors affect estimations. **Method:** 69 German undergraduate students were recruited and completed a computer-based task. They were presented with comparative judgment questions (anchors) about Mahatma Gandhi\'s age at death: either \"before or after 9\" (low anchor) or \"before or after 140\" (high anchor). Immediately after, they provided an absolute estimate of Gandhi\'s age at death. **Results:** Participants exposed to the high anchor (140) gave higher age estimates than those exposed to the low anchor (9). Both implausible anchors influenced estimates, with low anchors appearing to have a stronger influence. **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** High internal validity due to the controlled experimental design. - **Weaknesses:** Potential for demand characteristics since participants answered similar questions twice. Low ecological validity due to the artificial setting. Sampling bias limits generalizability as the sample consisted of German university students recruited through opportunity sampling. **Emotion and cognition** Brown and Kulik **Aim:** To investigate the existence and characteristics of flashbulb memories, specifically whether surprising and personally relevant events lead to these vivid and detailed memories. **Method:** 80 American male participants (40 Black, 40 White) were given a questionnaire about the deaths of public figures (e.g., JFK, Martin Luther King Jr.) and a personal acquaintance. They answered questions about where they were, who they were with, what they were doing, how they found out, how they felt, the event\'s importance, and how often they had discussed it. **Findings:** 90% of participants had detailed memories of the public events. Flashbulb memories for public figures were linked to personal relevance. Black participants showed a higher rate of flashbulb memories for Martin Luther King Jr.\'s death (75%) than white participants (33%). **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** Pioneering study on flashbulb memories, generating further research. Replicable procedure to test reliability. - **Weaknesses:** Questionnaire/interview method limits causal inferences. Retrospective self-report data, potentially inaccurate and unverifiable. Impossible to objectively measure initial surprise or emotion. Rehearsal\'s role in memory formation is difficult to measure. Potential for social desirability bias. Sampling bias (American males only) and cultural bias limit generalizability. Sharot er al **Aim:**\ To investigate the potential role of biological factors, particularly the amygdala, in flashbulb memories. **Research Method:** - **Quasi-Experiment:** Participants were placed in an fMRI scanner to observe brain activity while recalling memories associated with the 9/11 terrorist attacks. **Participants:**\ 24 participants who were in New York City during the 9/11 attacks. They were recruited through advertisements and compensated for participation. **Procedure:** 5. Participants were placed in an fMRI scanner and presented with word cues, along with either \"Summer\" or \"September,\" to link the words to either personal summer events or 9/11 memories. 6. Brain activity was monitored as participants recalled both summer memories (serving as a baseline) and memories related to 9/11. 7. After the scanning session, participants rated their memories for vividness, detail, confidence in accuracy, and emotional arousal, and wrote descriptions of their personal memories. 8. Half of the participants reported having flashbulb memories, which were more detailed and accompanied by greater confidence in their accuracy. **Results:** - **Amygdala Activation:** - Participants who were closer to the World Trade Center showed higher amygdala activation when recalling 9/11 memories compared to summer memories. - Those further away from the event showed similar amygdala activity for both types of memories. - The strength of amygdala activation was positively correlated with the vividness and confidence of flashbulb memories. - **Proximity and Memory:** - Participants closer to the World Trade Center included more specific details in their written memories of 9/11, suggesting a stronger emotional connection to the event. **Conclusion:**\ The study supports the idea that the amygdala plays a role in the vividness and emotional intensity of flashbulb memories. Proximity to the event appears to increase the engagement of the amygdala, contributing to more detailed and confident memories. **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** - **Biological Evidence:** The study highlights the role of the amygdala in emotional memories, providing evidence for the localization of function in the brain. - **Correlation with Emotional Intensity:** The findings suggest a biological basis for the vividness and emotional intensity of flashbulb memories. - **Limitations:** - **Correlational Nature:** The study does not establish a cause-and-effect relationship between amygdala activation and flashbulb memories. - **Artificial Setting:** The fMRI environment and the nature of the task may limit the ecological validity of the study. - **Cultural Bias:** The sample was small and culturally biased, as it was made up of individuals from an individualistic culture. The findings may not be generalizable to collectivistic cultures. - **Limited Scope:** The study does not explain why some people who experience events indirectly (e.g., via television) also report vivid flashbulb memories. HL **The influence (positive and negative) of technologies (digital/modern) on cognitive processes** **[Cognitive processing]** **Negative influence-Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) -- true experiment** **Aim:** To investigate the effect of note-taking method (longhand vs. laptop) on learning, hypothesizing that longhand note-taking, due to increased processing, leads to better learning outcomes. **Method:** 109 undergraduate students were randomly assigned to take notes on four lectures (bats, bread, vaccines, respiration) using either a laptop or pen and paper. Participants were further divided into \"study\" (10 minutes to review notes before the test) and \"no-study\" conditions. A 40-question test (factual and conceptual) followed. **Results:** Without studying, both groups performed similarly, with better conceptual than factual understanding. With studying, the longhand note-taking group performed significantly better than the laptop group, particularly on factual questions. **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** Highly standardized and replicable, allowing for reliability testing. High mundane realism for student participants. High internal validity due to controlled conditions. - **Weaknesses:** Arguably low ecological validity due to the unfamiliar lecture format (unannounced topics). Independent samples design, potential for participant variability. High standard deviations suggest lower reliability of the data. **Sparrow -- true experiment** **Aim:** To investigate the \"Google Effect\" or digital amnesia, examining whether the belief that information is readily available online reduces the effort to remember it. A secondary aim was to see if people prioritize remembering *where* information is stored (the folder) rather than the information itself. **Method (Study 1):** 60 Harvard undergraduates typed 40 trivia facts (some likely known, some new). A 2x2 independent samples design manipulated whether participants were told their input would be saved or erased, and whether they were explicitly asked to remember the facts. Recall and recognition tests followed. **Findings (Study 1):** Whether participants were asked to remember had no significant effect on recall. However, recall was significantly lower when participants believed the information was saved, suggesting less encoding effort. **Method (Study 2):** 34 Columbia undergraduates typed 30 trivia facts. After each fact, they were told which of six folders it was saved in. Participants were then tested on recall of the facts themselves and recall of which folder each fact was saved in. **Findings (Study 2):** Participants were significantly better at recalling the folder a fact was saved in than recalling the fact itself. This suggests a prioritization of remembering *where* information is stored over the information itself. **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** Groundbreaking study introducing the concept of digital amnesia. - **Weaknesses:** Replication attempts have been unsuccessful, challenging reliability. Low ecological validity due to the artificial task and lack of personal relevance of the information. Potential for demand characteristics. Sample bias (university students) limits generalizability. **[Emotion and cognition]** **Schaefer et al (2011) quasi-experiment** **Aim:** To investigate the influence of media context (immediate vs. delayed television viewing) on the accuracy and consistency of flashbulb memories (FBMs) of the 9/11 attacks. **Method:** 38 university students (mean age 20) provided free recall accounts of hearing about the 9/11 attacks 28 hours after the event and again six months later. Participants were unaware of the second recall task. They were divided into two groups: 1) Immediate viewing (saw the event live on TV) and 2) Delayed viewing (saw coverage hours later). Two blind research assistants coded the recall accounts into nine event categories. **Results:** The amount of information recalled (number of event categories, word count) did not differ significantly between the two groups at either recall time. However, the delayed viewing group showed less elaborate and consistent recall over the six-month period. **Conclusion:** Seeing the news live on TV (immediate viewing) may lead to more accurate FBMs over time. Initial \"breaking news\" coverage may be crucial for encoding FBMs, while repeated exposure over time may contribute to their vividness and accuracy. **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** High ecological validity due to the real-life event. - **Weaknesses:** Lack of control over extraneous variables (e.g., varying levels of media exposure over six months). Reliance on self-reported emotions, susceptible to exaggeration or suppression, and difficult to standardize. Low population validity due to the use of only university students. **Hirst et al (2008) correlation** **Aim:** To investigate the correlation between media coverage of the 9/11 attacks and the accuracy of individuals\' flashbulb memories (FBMs) of the event, as well as the influence of factors like emotional intensity and rehearsal. **Method:** 391 participants completed three surveys related to their 9/11 FBMs: 1 week after the attack, 1 year later, and 2 years later. Survey 2 included participants from Survey 1 who agreed to follow-up *and* new participants. The \~17-page surveys (\~45 minutes to complete) assessed FBM consistency, event accuracy, and predictors like consequentiality (personal loss/inconvenience), emotional intensity, and rehearsal. Questions included confidence ratings (1-5 scale) and predictions of future memory accuracy. **Results:** 1) The rate of forgetting for FBMs slowed after one year. 2) Strong emotional reactions were associated with poorer recall of factual details (where/when they learned the news). 3) The content of event memories stabilized after one year. While FBMs were not always consistent across surveys, confidence in their accuracy remained high. **Conclusion:** Emotional intensity may play a key role in FBM formation, and annual media reminders of the emotional event may lead to overt rehearsal, contributing to FBMs. However, the study cannot definitively link initial media exposure to memory accuracy or vividness. **Evaluation:** The study parallels Neisser and Harsch\'s findings of a dissociation between memory accuracy and confidence. While the longitudinal design offers insights into memory change over time, it lacks control over extraneous variables, such as individual differences in media consumption and rehearsal. The reliance on self-reported data introduces potential biases. **Methods used to study the interaction between technologies and cognitive processes.** **[Cognitive processing]** **Research method:** Milner 1966 -- case study **Aim** To investigate the effects of the removal of HM\'s medial temporal lobe (including the hippocampus) on memory formation, specifically the role of the hippocampus in transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory. **Method** - This longitudinal case study utilized method triangulation to gather data over several decades: - Psychometric testing: IQ tests revealed that HM's intelligence was above average. - Direct observation: Observations of HM's behavior and daily functioning. - Interviews: Conducted with both HM and his family members to understand his memory deficits and overall condition. - Cognitive testing: Memory recall tests and learning tasks, such as reverse mirror drawing, to assess his memory capabilities and motor skill learning. - MRI scanning: In 1992 and 2003, Corkin conducted brain imaging to identify the extent of brain damage and its effects on memory processes. **Findings --** The hippocampus plays a critical role in converting short-term memories into long-term memories, but it is not the site of permanent memory storage. **Glanzer and Cunitz -- true lab** **Aim:**\ To investigate the recency effect in memory recall and how it is affected by a delay. **Research Method:**\ Repeated measures design. **Participants:**\ 46 army enlisted men. **Procedure:** 5. Participants were first given three 5-word practice lists to familiarize themselves with the procedure. 6. They were then shown 15 fifteen-word lists. Each word was displayed for 1 second with a 2-second interval between words, while the experimenter read each word aloud. 7. After each list, participants either saw a \# (immediate recall condition) or a number (delayed recall condition). - **Immediate recall:** Participants wrote down as many words as they could recall. - **Delayed recall (10 seconds):** Participants counted from a number for 10 seconds before recalling words. - **Delayed recall (30 seconds):** Participants counted for 30 seconds before recalling words. 8. The order of word presentation was randomized for each participant. **Results:** - **Immediate recall:** Both the **primacy** and **recency effects** were observed. - **10-second delay:** A significant reduction in the recency effect was observed. - **30-second delay:** There was \"no trace\" of the recency effect, but the primacy effect remained. **Conclusion:**\ The recency effect is influenced by the length of the delay. A short delay (10 seconds) reduces the recency effect, and a longer delay (30 seconds) eliminates it entirely, suggesting that the recency effect is associated with short-term memory and can be disrupted by a distraction task. **[Reliability of cognitive processes]** Loftus and palmer -- informed consent, true lab **Aim:**\ To investigate the role of leading questions in influencing the memories of eyewitnesses, specifically in relation to estimating the speed of cars involved in a traffic accident. Reconstructive memory **Research Method:** experiment. Independent measures design - **Participants:** 45 students were divided into five groups of nine and shown seven traffic accident films, each ranging from 5 to 30 seconds in length. **Procedure:** 7. Participants watched traffic accident films and then provided an account of what they had seen. 8. Afterward, participants answered a questionnaire that included a critical question asking them to estimate the speed of the cars. The key question varied in wording, such as: "About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" The verb \"hit\" was replaced with words like \"smashed,\" \"collided,\" \"bumped,\" and \"contacted\" across different groups. 9. The dependent variable was the speed estimate given by participants. **Results:** - The mean speed estimates were highest for the \"smashed\" group (40.8 mph) and lowest for the \"contacted\" group (31.8 mph). - The researchers found a significant difference in speed estimates, with the results being statistically significant (p ≤ 0.005). - The use of a stronger verb like "smashed" led to higher speed estimates, suggesting that the wording of questions can influence memory recall and estimations. **Conclusion:**\ The study concluded that leading questions, such as those using more intense verbs, can distort memory recall by triggering different cognitive schemas (e.g., the schema of a severe accident), thus altering how the event is remembered. This supports the idea of reconstructive memory, where memories are not static but reconstructed based on external influences like question phrasing. **Ethics - deception** is an ethical consideration in Loftus & Palmer\'s study. Participants were not fully informed that the study\'s goal was to investigate how leading questions could influence memory recall. Instead, they were told they were simply watching traffic accident films and answering related questions. This misled participants about the true purpose of the study.Although deception was used, it is sometimes justified if necessary for the study's integrity and if participants are not harmed. In this case, the researchers likely debriefed participants afterward, explaining the study's purpose and the impact of the leading questions on memory, which is essential for addressing ethical concerns **Neisser and Harsch** **Aim:**\ To determine whether flashbulb memories are susceptible to distortion. **Research Method:** - **Case Study:** Longitudinal, prospective design with method triangulation (questionnaires and interviews). **Participants:**\ 106 Emory University students (initially), with 44 returning for the follow-up (30 women, 14 men). **Procedure:** 9. On the morning after the Challenger disaster (January 28, 1986), students filled out a questionnaire detailing how they heard about the event. 10. 2.5 years later, 44 participants were given the same questionnaire, with additional questions about their confidence in the accuracy of their memories. 11. Semi-structured interviews were conducted a few months later to probe further into discrepancies. 12. Participants were shown their original responses to reflect on inconsistencies. **Results:** - **Discrepancies:** The majority of participants' recollections changed significantly, with an average score of 2.95/7 for accuracy. Only three participants had perfect recall, and 25% did not recall ever filling out the initial questionnaire. - **Confidence:** Despite low accuracy, participants were highly confident in their memories, with an average confidence score of 4.17/5. - **Cues:** Additional cues had little effect on improving accuracy, suggesting that memories were distorted. **Conclusion:**\ Flashbulb memories are prone to distortion, even though individuals have high confidence in their recollections. This challenges the belief that these memories are immune to forgetting or distortion. **Ethical Considerations:** **Protection from harm-** Minimal psychological distress: The study focused on memories of a public event rather than personal trauma, reducing the risk of emotional distress **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** - **Ecological Validity:** Naturalistic study with real-world events, making the findings applicable to real-life memory distortion. - **Method Triangulation:** Use of both questionnaires and interviews increases the validity of the results. - **Limitations:** - **Participant Attrition:** Some participants dropped out, which reduced the sample size. - **Confounding Variables:** The lack of control over exposure to media or discussion of the event between the two time points is a limitation. - **Demand Characteristics:** Participants' confidence ratings may have been influenced by the desire to appear accurate or socially acceptable. **Sociocultural approach** **[The individual and the group]** **Research method and ethical considerations** 1. **Tajfel et al 1971- True experiments** Tajfel\'s study investigates Social Identity Theory (SIT). SIT argues that people categorize themselves and others into groups (\"us\" vs. \"them\"). This leads to social identification (adopting the in-group\'s identity) and social comparison (favoring the in-group to boost self-esteem). Tajfel\'s \"minimal groups\" study shows that even arbitrary group membership triggers in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination, supporting SIT\'s claim that these behaviors stem from the need for a positive social identity. **Aim:** To investigate if intergroup discrimination would occur based on minimal group categorization, even in the absence of pre-existing prejudice. **Method:** 48 British schoolboys (14-15 years old) rated 12 abstract paintings (Klee and Kandinsky) without knowing the artists. They were then randomly assigned to \"Klee\" or \"Kandinsky\" groups (ostensibly based on their preferences). Participants then allocated points to two other boys (one from their in-group, one from the out-group) using two different point allocation systems. System 1 linked scores, so increasing points for one meant decreasing points for the other. System 2 allowed participants to maximize the *difference* in points between groups, even if it meant fewer points for their own group. **Results:** In System 1, boys showed in-group favoritism, awarding more points to their own group. In System 2, they prioritized maximizing the *difference* between groups, even at the cost of their own group\'s total points. **Conclusion:** Minimal group categorization is sufficient to trigger in-group favoritism and discrimination. Intergroup conflict is not necessary for discrimination to occur. **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** High control over variables, minimizing confounding factors. Replicable procedure to test reliability. - **Weaknesses:** Highly artificial task, low ecological validity. Potential for demand characteristics (boys may have perceived the task as competitive). Sampling bias (British schoolboys) limits generalizability to other populations (women, adults, other cultures). **[Cultural origins of behaviour and cognition]** **Berry** **Aim:** To investigate the influence of cultural dimensions (specifically collectivism vs. individualism) on conformity using a variation of the Asch paradigm. **Method:** Participants from three cultures were used: the Temne of Sierra Leone (rice farming, collectivistic), the Inuit of Baffin Island (hunting/fishing, individualistic), and Scots (control group -- both rural and urban). Each cultural group had both traditionally living and \"transitional\" (Western-educated/employed) members (\~120 participants per group). Participants were tested individually. After two practice trials of matching line lengths, participants were given four more trials. On the third trial, they were told (incorrectly) what \"most\" members of their culture had chosen. The dependent variable was the number of lines the participant\'s answer was away from the correct answer (conformity score, range 0-15). **Results:** The Temne (collectivistic) showed significantly higher conformity than the Inuit (individualistic), with the Scots falling in between. There was no significant difference in conformity between traditional and transitional members *within* each cultural group. **Conclusion:** Collectivistic cultures show higher levels of conformity than individualistic cultures. **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** Cross-cultural design highlights the role of culture. Use of a control group and native language instructions strengthen internal validity. Standardized procedure allows for replication and reliability checks. - **Weaknesses:** Low ecological validity due to the artificial task. Quasi-experiment design limits causal inferences. Study is dated, raising concerns about temporal validity in our more globalized world. Risk of ecological fallacy (stereotyping individuals based on group membership). **[Cultural influences on individual behaviour]** **Fagot (1978)- naturalistic observation. Enculturation --** **Aim:** To investigate the role of parents in gender role development by observing parental reactions to children\'s behaviors. **Method:** 24 white American families (12 with a boy, 12 with a girl), with one child aged 20-24 months and both parents aged 20-30, were observed in their homes for five 60-minute sessions over five weeks. Observers used a time-sampling method, recording the child\'s behavior every 60 seconds and the parents\' subsequent reaction. Two observers ensured inter-coder reliability. Parents also completed a questionnaire rating the 46 child behaviors as girl-, boy-, or neutral-appropriate, and another questionnaire about sex-role socialization. **Results:** Several patterns emerged: Boys were left alone more than girls. Parents reacted more positively to boys playing with blocks and girls manipulating objects. They reacted more positively to girls playing with dolls and negatively to boys doing so. Girls were criticized more for large motor activities (running, jumping). Girls received more positive responses for asking for help, while boys received more negative responses. Fathers were more concerned with sex-typing than mothers. Parents reinforced same-sex preferred behaviors and reacted negatively to cross-sex preferred behaviors. Girls received more positive responses for adult-oriented, dependent behavior. Parents\' questionnaire responses didn\'t always align with their observed behavior (e.g., asking for help). **Evaluation:** 1. **Strengths:** Naturalistic observation, high ecological validity. Use of two observers increases reliability. 2. **Weaknesses:** Sampling bias (white, American, university-linked families) limits generalizability. Potential for demand characteristics (parents may alter behavior when observed). Small sample size. Social cognitive theory -- Bandarana, Ross and Ross Social cognitive theory, developed by Albert Bandura, explains how people learn through observation and imitation. It emphasizes that we don\'t just learn by direct rewards and punishments, but also by watching others. ^2^ If we see someone else being rewarded for a behavior (vicarious reinforcement), we\'re more likely to imitate that behavior ourselves. ^3^ This theory highlights the role of cognitive factors, such as attention, memory, and motivation, in the learning process. ^4^ **Aim:** To investigate whether children learn aggressive behaviors through observation and imitation of adult models, and specifically, whether children would imitate aggressive acts resembling those of the models, and whether same-sex models would be imitated more than opposite-sex models. **Method:** 72 children (36 boys, 36 girls) aged 37-69 months were pre-tested for baseline aggression levels and then matched and assigned to one of eight conditions: aggressive model (same-sex or opposite-sex), non-aggressive model (same-sex or opposite-sex), or control group (no model). In the experimental conditions, children observed an adult model interacting with a Bobo doll (either aggressively or passively) for 10 minutes. Children were then mildly frustrated and finally observed for 20 minutes in a room with toys, including a Bobo doll, while observers recorded their behavior. Imitative aggression (physical and verbal), non-imitative aggression, and other behaviors were recorded. **Results:** Children exposed to the aggressive model exhibited significantly more aggressive acts than those in the non-aggressive or control groups. Boys displayed more overall aggression than girls. Boys imitated same-sex aggressive models more than opposite-sex models, especially for physical aggression. Girls imitated same-sex models more for verbal aggression, but showed more physical aggression if the model was male. **Conclusion:** Children learn aggressive behaviors through observation and imitation, supporting social learning theory. Same-sex models have a greater influence on imitation. **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** Matched pairs design controls for pre-existing aggression levels. - **Weaknesses:** Small sample size limits generalizability. Ethical concerns about exposing children to aggression and potential long-term effects. Artificial setting and situation, low ecological validity. Potential for demand characteristics (children may act aggressively because they think that\'s what\'s expected). Formation of stereotypes -- Hamilton and Gifford -- illusory correlation **Aim:** To investigate how the distinctiveness of a minority group influences the formation of illusory correlations, specifically whether negative behaviors are more likely to be associated with a minority group. **Method:** 40 American undergraduate participants read a series of slides describing members of two fictitious groups (A and B). Group A had 26 members, and Group B (the minority group) had 13. Each slide described a group member performing either a positive or negative behavior. The ratio of positive to negative behaviors was the same for both groups. Participants then rated members of each group on various traits, indicated group membership for each behavior described, and estimated the number of \"undesirable\" traits for each group. Half the participants completed the trait ratings before the booklet task, and half completed them after. A follow-up study with 70 female undergraduates used the same procedure but without informing participants about the group size beforehand, and with a reversed ratio of positive to negative traits (4:9). **Results:** Participants rated Group A higher on positive traits and lower on negative traits. They recalled more positive traits for Group A and more negative traits for Group B. In the follow-up study, with the group size information removed, Group B was rated as having more *positive* traits. **Conclusion:** Distinctiveness-based illusory correlations occur when a perceived relationship exists between two variables due to focusing too much on information that stands out. Negative behaviors from a minority group are more salient and thus over-associated with the group, leading to negative stereotypes. The follow-up study suggested that explicitly labeling a group as a minority may prime participants to see them in a more negative light. **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** Use of fictitious groups increases internal validity by eliminating pre-existing stereotypes. - **Weaknesses:** Highly artificial setting and task, low ecological validity. The repeated measures design could lead to interference effects. Some findings were not statistically significant. - **Applications:** The findings have implications for understanding the formation of stereotypes and prejudice, and have been applied to areas such as doctor-patient interactions. Stereotype on behaviour - **[Stereotype threat:]** Steele and Aronson (1995) define **stereotype threat** as "being at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about one's group". Stereotype threat causes an individual to inadvertently demonstrate behaviour that supports the existing stereotype. **Steele and Aronson (1995): true** experiment (participants were randomly assigned to conditions) stereotype threat turns on **spotlight anxiety**, which causes emotional distress and pressure that may undermine performance. Students under the stereotype threat often under-perform and this can naturally limit their educational prospects. Influence of culture on behaviour and cognition -- memory - Cole and scribner **Aim:** To investigate the influence of culture and schooling on memory strategies. **Method:** Researchers identified familiar objects in Liberia and the US. They then presented lists of these objects (vegetables, clothes, tools) to children in both countries, asking them to free recall the items. Liberian children who did not attend school were compared to Liberian children who attended school, and both groups were compared to US children. The free recall task was repeated, but this time, the list was presented as a narrative or story. **Findings:** Non-schooled Liberian children did not use chunking and their recall did not improve much with repetition, plateauing around age 10. Schooled Liberian children and US children used chunking and performed better. However, when the list was presented as a story, non-schooled Liberian children excelled. **Conclusion:** Memory strategies are not universal but are shaped by cultural practices and schooling. Non-schooled children perform well on culturally relevant memory tasks (like oral storytelling) but struggle with tasks like free recall of lists, which are more aligned with formal schooling. **Evaluation:** - **Strengths:** Field experiment design allows for cause-and-effect inferences. Cross-cultural approach increases validity and generalizability (to some extent). High ecological validity. Controlled variables (e.g., distractions, language). - **Weaknesses:** Artificiality for non-schooled Liberian children, as recalling lists is not a typical activity in their daily lives. Sample limited to children; results may not generalize to adults. Lack of control over how children rehearsed the items (e.g., aloud, silently, visually) introduces a confounding variable. Reductionist approach, as it focuses on specific memory strategies and may overlook other cultural influences on cognition. Acculturation -- Miranda and Matheny **Background:** Acculturation, the process of adapting to a new culture, often involves significant changes in identity, values, behaviors, and attitudes. This adaptation can lead to acculturative stress, a unique form of distress. **Aim:** To investigate which factors in the lives of Latino immigrants to the United States would decrease the level of acculturative stress. **Participants:** A random sample of 197 (63% female, 37% male) Spanish-speaking American immigrants (47% Mexican ancestry, 34% Central American, 19% South American). The average age was 28.7, the average age of migration to the US was 22.5, and the average length of residence in the United States was 3.9 years. **Method:** Participants completed a questionnaire and tests to assess several variables: - **Family cohesion:** The degree of emotional bonding and support within the family unit. - **Level of acculturation:** The extent to which individuals have adopted the cultural norms and practices of the host culture. - **Acculturative stress:** The psychological and emotional strain associated with the acculturation process. - **Coping strategies:** The methods individuals use to manage stress and challenges. - **English proficiency:** Self-reported ability to speak and understand English. - **Length of residence in the US:** How long the individuals had lived in the United States. **Findings:** The researchers found that several factors were associated with lower levels of acculturative stress: - **Effective coping strategies:** Immigrants who utilized effective coping mechanisms (e.g., seeking social support, problem-solving) experienced less stress. - **Good proficiency in English:** Stronger English language skills were associated with reduced acculturative stress, likely facilitating integration and access to resources. - **Strong family structure/cohesion:** Close-knit and supportive family relationships acted as a buffer against acculturative stress. - **Longer time in the US:** Immigrants who had lived in the US for a longer period tended to experience less stress and showed higher levels of acculturation. (Note: The original text mentions no quantitative data for this finding). **Conclusion:** The results of this study support the idea that acculturative stress is influenced by multiple interacting factors. The study highlights the importance of protective factors, such as coping strategies, language skills, and social support, in mitigating the negative effects of acculturation on mental health. It suggests that successful integration, balancing the maintenance of one\'s original culture with engagement in the new culture, reduces acculturative stress.

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