Biological Approach Psychology PDF

Biological Approach 1.​ Draginski et al. (2004) ○​ Key Concept: Neural pruning: The process by which extra, unused, or weak synaptic connections in the brain are eliminated to enhance neural efficiency. Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize itself...

Biological Approach 1.​ Draginski et al. (2004) ○​ Key Concept: Neural pruning: The process by which extra, unused, or weak synaptic connections in the brain are eliminated to enhance neural efficiency. Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections in response to learning, experience, or injury. ○​ Aim: Investigate if the brain can change structure in response to learning. ○​ Procedure: ​ Participants were divided into two groups: jugglers and non-jugglers.(non-judgelers were used as a controlled group) ​ MRI scans were taken before learning to juggle, after 3 months of juggling practice, and 3 months after stopping practice. ​ Participants were instructed to practice juggling for a minimum of 1 min daily. ○​ Findings: ​ Increased grey matter in the area of the brain (associated with visual-spatial memory) was observed in the juggling group. ​ This increase in grey matter reduced significantly after they stopped practicing for 3 months. ○​ Conclusion: ​ Neuroplasticity allows the brain to adapt structurally to new skills, but these changes may not be permanent without consistent practice. ​ Highlights the relationship between environmental stimuli and brain structure. 2.​ Newcomer et al. (1999) ○​ Key Concept: Cortisol - stress hormone and memory Declarative memory (explicit memory): A type of long-term memory involving information that can be consciously recalled, such as facts and events. It is divided into: Episodic memory: Personal experiences or events (e.g., your last birthday). Semantic memory: General knowledge and facts (e.g., the capital of France). ○​ Aim: Investigate how stress hormone cortisol affects verbal declarative memory. ○​ Procedure: ​ Participants were divided into three groups: high cortisol dose, low cortisol dose, and placebo. ​ Over 4 days, participants listened to and recalled parts of a prose paragraph. ​ Verbal declarative memory was assessed daily. ○​ Findings: ​ High cortisol levels impaired memory performance significantly compared to placebo and low-dose groups. ​ Low doses had minimal impact on memory. ○​ Conclusion:  ​ Cortisol, associated with stress, negatively affects memory performance, particularly at high levels. ​ Demonstrates the physiological effects of stress on cognitive processes. 3.​ Caspi et al. (2003) ○​ Key Concept: Gene-environment interaction (5-HTT gene). ○​ Aim: Investigate whether the 5-HTT gene modulates the influence of stressful life events on depression. ○​ Procedure: ​ participants were tested for the length of their 5-HTT alleles (long or short). ​ Participants completed a life-stress inventory questionnaire, documenting stressors experienced over five years. ​ Depression symptoms were assessed through structured interviews. ○​ Findings: ​ Participants with one or two short alleles of the 5-HTT gene and exposure to stress were more likely to develop depression. ​ Long alleles were associated with greater resilience to stress. ○​ Conclusion: ​ The 5-HTT gene moderates susceptibility to depression in response to stress. ​ Highlights the importance of gene-environment interactions in psychological health. Cognitive Approach 1.​ Bransford & Johnson (1972) ○​ Key Concept: Schema theory: A cognitive theory suggesting that knowledge is organized into mental frameworks called schemas, which help individuals interpret and respond to information. Schemas are built from past experiences and guide understanding, memory, and behavior. ○​ Aim: Investigate the effect of prior knowledge on memory comprehension. ○​ Procedure: ​ Participants heard a complex, ambiguous passage about laundry either with or without contextual information. ​ Contextual information was provided before, after, or not at all (control group). ​ Participants were asked to recall as many details as possible. ○​ Findings: ​ Those who received context before hearing the passage had significantly better recall. ​ Context provided after the passage did not improve recall compared to the control group. ○​ Conclusion:  ​ Schemas help encode and retrieve information more effectively. ​ Demonstrates the importance of prior knowledge in cognitive processing. 2.​ Brown & Kulik (1977) ○​ Key Concept: Flashbulb memories: A type of vivid and highly detailed memory of emotionally significant or shocking events. These memories are characterized by their clarity, long-lasting nature, and high confidence in recall, although their accuracy may decline over time. ○​ Aim: Explore how emotion influences vivid memories of significant events. ○​ Procedure: ​ Participants were asked to recall their memories of significant public events (e.g., JFK’s assassination) and personal events. ​ They described the circumstances in which they heard the news, including location, emotions, and other details. ○​ Findings: ​ Memories of shocking, emotional events were more vivid and detailed than non-emotional events. ​ African American participants recalled events like the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. more vividly. ○​ Conclusion: ​ Emotional significance enhances memory retention. ​ Flashbulb memories are a distinct phenomenon linked to emotional arousal. Sociocultural Approach 1.​ Tajfel (1970) ○​ Key Concept: Social identity theory. Social Identity Theory (SIT): A psychological theory proposed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner, explaining how individuals derive part of their self-concept from group memberships. It emphasizes the role of social categorization and intergroup behavior in shaping identity. Social categorization: People classify themselves and others into groups (e.g., "us" vs. "them").Social identification: Individuals adopt the identity of their group, influencing self-esteem and behavior.Social comparison: Groups are compared to maintain or enhance self-esteem, often leading to in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination. ○​ Aim: Investigate the minimal conditions required for in-group favoritism and discrimination. ○​ Procedure: ​ Boys were randomly assigned to groups based on trivial criteria (e.g., preference for one artist over another). ​ Asked to allocate points to members of their own group and the other group using matrices. ○​ Findings:  ​ Boys consistently allocated more points to their in-group, even at the expense of maximizing overall group rewards. ​ Demonstrated in-group favoritism based on minimal group criteria. ○​ Conclusion: ​ Social identity alone is enough to trigger discrimination. ​ Supports the idea that people derive self-esteem from group membership. 2.​ Bandura (1961) ○​ Key Concept: Social cognitive theory. Social Cognitive Theory (SCT): Developed by Albert Bandura, SCT explains learning and behavior as a dynamic interaction of personal, behavioral, and environmental factors, emphasizing observational learning and cognitive processes.Observational learning: Learning occurs by watching others (models) and imitating their behavior.Reciprocal determinism: Personal, behavioral, and environmental factors influence each other.Self-efficacy: Belief in one’s ability to succeed affects motivation and actions.Reinforcement: Behavior is influenced by rewards and punishments, whether direct or vicarious (observing others being rewarded or punished). ○​ Aim: Examine if children learn aggression through observation. ○​ Procedure: ​ Children watched an adult model act aggressively or non-aggressively towards a Bobo doll. ​ Some models were rewarded or punished for their behavior. ​ Children were then observed interacting with the same Bobo doll. ○​ Findings: ​ Children who observed aggressive behavior imitated the model’s aggression, especially when the model was rewarded. ​ Boys were more likely to imitate physical aggression than girls. ○​ Conclusion: ​ Behavior is learned through observation and reinforcement. ​ Highlights the role of modeling in social learning. 3.​ Berry (1967) ○​ Key Concept: Cultural conformity: The process by which individuals adjust their behaviors, beliefs, or attitudes to align with the norms and expectations of their culture or social group. It ensures social cohesion and acceptance within a group. ○​ Aim: Investigate how cultural dimensions influence conformity. ○​ Procedure: ​ Participants from individualist cultures and collectivist cultures completed an Asch-style conformity task. ​ Participants were given incorrect information about other group members' answers. ○​ Findings: ​ Participants from collectivist cultures showed higher conformity rates than those from individualist cultures. ○​ Conclusion: ​ Cultural dimensions, such as individualism and collectivism, influence behavior.