STS Midterm Reviewer PDF

11/6/24, 12:48 AM OneNote STS REVIEWER (MIDTERM) Monday, 28 October 2024 11:14 pm MIDDLE AGES Known as the Dark Ages due to the invasion of various Germanic tribes on the previo...

11/6/24, 12:48 AM OneNote STS REVIEWER (MIDTERM) Monday, 28 October 2024 11:14 pm MIDDLE AGES Known as the Dark Ages due to the invasion of various Germanic tribes on the previous domain of the Roman Empire. Akaric I - King of Visigoths Appointed Magister Militum - Master of The Soldiers Three different time period: EARLY, HIGH, & LATE MIDDLE AGES BYZANTINE EMPIRE After the collapse of the Roman Empire, only the Eastern part remained with Byzantium. Byzantium – as its capital, later renamed Constantinople when captured by Emperor Constantine. Emperor Justinian – reclaimed the land invaded by the various Germanic Tribe. This time was considered the restoration of the empire of Rome. Handheld Trebuchet – aka cheiromangana, made alteration of counterweight trebuchet Trebuchet – type of catapult Tidal Mill – One of the earliest tide mills was discovered. Like water mill, uses running water to grind grains. Derives its power from the rise and fall of the tides. ISLAMIC EMPIRE Largest empires in history. This empire was estimated to have lasted from the mid-7th to the mid-13th century. Koran - holy book of the Muslims; encouraged the development of science by allowing believers to seek knowledge and observe nature for signs of Allah through scientific study. Starch - paper The House of Wisdom - in Baghdad; translations of Greek and Syriac texts to Arabic; belonged to the Abbasid Caliphs. Ptolemy's Al-Magest - first work to be translated into Arabic By the 10th century, hundreds of shops in Baghdad employed scribes and binders for compiling books. Siege of Baghdad (1258) - Ruins of House of Baghdad. Golden Age if Islamic Science - began in the 8th century and continued up to the 13th century. Ibn Al-Haytham or Alhazen - laid the foundation of modern optics, known as the "Father of Modern Optics". He devised Law of Refraction. Made the book "Book of Optics" Abu Ali al-Hussein Ibn Sina also known as Avicenna - was a physician and philosopher who wrote al-Qanun fi al-Tibb or The Canon of Medicine. This medical encyclopedia was the first to describe the anatomy of the human eye and recognize the contagious natures of tuberculosis and meningitis. Abu Qasim Khalaf ibn Abbas Al Zahrawi or Al Zahrawi - recognized as "Father of Surgery", wrote the book Al Tasreef Liman 'Ajaz 'Aan Al-Taleef or The Clearance of Medical Science for Those Who Cannot Compile it. It contains directions on the proper procedures in performing surgery on various parts of the body. Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi - Persian scholar who develop Algebra, made the book Al-Kitab al-mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr wal-muqabala or The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing. The book lays the foundation of algebra Al-Biruni - devised a method of determining the radius of the earth. Jabir ibn Hayyan - known as "Father of Chemistry". MIDIEVAL EUROPE Around the 8th century, Charles the Great or Charlemagne, assisted by the English monk Alcuin of York, founded the Carolingian Empire that forged Carolingian Renaissance. The Viking Age (793 - 1006 AD) - while known to be cruel warriors, pillagers, and skillful navigators, are also credited for a number of technological advancements. Axe - commonly used weapon of the Vikings Dane Axe - used for battle, supposedly held by two hands. Magnetic Compass - uses the Sun to help them navigate the seas. Crusades - were a series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin church to curb the Islamic faith in Europe. Pope Urban II - emphasize the importance of reclaiming the territories of Palestine and Jerusalem from Muslim occupation. By 1096, Europe launched the First Crusade. Crossbow - a key invention during the First Crusade, considered as an essential weapon in battle. Three-field system - involves the division of a single piece of land into three smaller plots where different seasonal crops would be planted. Aristotle's works, Physics and Metaphysics, were revived in the 12th and 13th centuries. Averroes (1126-1198) and William of Moerbeke (1215 - 1286) - most known translators of Aristotle's work. Claudius Ptolemy's Geography was also translated to Latin during this period, which inspired Christopher Columbus to pursue his exploration of the New World. Euclid and Archimedes were also rediscovered with the help of Latin translations. Euclid's work Elements of Geometry that documents his conceptualization of the Pythagorean Theorem. Studium Generale - first medieval university Christian Scholasticism - a method of critical thought that integrated religious theology with scientific truth. Two main religious orders spearheaded the methodology of scholasticism. https://onedrive.live.com/view.aspx?resid=68832EA7DA029BE9!se9118364a34843df95d34f09c2141000&migratedtospo=true&redeem=aHR0cHM6Ly… 1/8 11/6/24, 12:48 AM OneNote Franciscans - founded by St. Francis of Assisi in 1209. Dominicans - founded by St. Dominic in 1215. Roger Bacon - contributed to the development of scientific method. In his book, Opus Majus, Bacon described a repeating cycle of scientific inquiry that took the following steps; (a) observation (b) formulation of hypothesis (c) experimentation. Alchemy - an ancient branch of natural philosophy that mainly seeks to convert base metals into noble metals such as gold. Astrology - establishes the connection between the position of heavenly and celestial bodies to the dwellings of human life and the natural world. The 14th century ushered in the Late Middle Ages, also known as the period characterized by intellectual progress. European universities began maturing, notably the University of Paris and Oxford University. Nicholas Oresme - established the mean speed theorem or theorem on uniform acceleration. John Buridan - developed impetus, described how a body in motion continues to stay in motion the body's intrinsic and natural quality Scientific and technological innovations of the Late Middle Ages include: Spectacles Magnets Spinning wheels Astrolabes Clocks IN THE WORLD: MODERN AGES RENAISSANCE The Renaissance is a period from 14th to the 17th century marking the transition from the Middle ages to modernity. Renaissance = French word that means 'rebirth'; used to represent the rebirth of Greek and Roman interests. Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press around 1440 became pivotal to the development of mass media. Among renowned writers and artists of the Renaissance were Dante, Petrarch, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Dante was known as "Father of Italian Poetry" for his magnus opus The Divine Comedy Francesco Petrarca, also known as Petrarch, rediscovered Greek and Roman classics and was hailed "The Father of Humanism." Leonardo da Vinci was a painter, sculptor, and scientist known for his works Mona Lisa, Vitruvian Man, and The Last Supper. Michelangelo is famous for painting the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Vatican, scenes from the Book of Genesis. Raphael, an Italian painter and architect, was known for embodying both the clear arrangement of elements and clarity of form seen in his paintings, The School of Athens and The Sistine Madonna. Scientific Revolution, a series of events that marked the rise of modern science during the early modern ages. This period is credited for introducing the most prominent scientists of the West whose scientific theories are still being studied today. Nicolaus Copernicus, the proponents of the heliocentric theory Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei, who eventually proved Copernicus' theory to be correct, Sir Isaac Newton, who eradicated all doubts of heliocentrism's validity through a mathematical description of the motion of the Earth and other celestial bodies around the Sun. Michelangelo and Leonardo the Vinci revived Biology in 1200AD The surviving church revived 3 big sciences: Physics, Astronomy, and Chemistry in 100AD The use of fuel began during this period due to the demand for mass production. Blast Furnace - the use of iron and steel became common in the 15th century due to this invention. The furnace liquifies iron that runs directly into the mold. Agricultural techniques were also developed to accumulate more income with less capital and manpower. Sheep farming was popularized because it required less human effort and provided larger yields of foods to support the growing population. The sickle was replaced by the scythe for cutting both crops and grass. There were significant advancements in navigation and expedition that contributed greatly for exploration of more territories and trade with other nations. Christopher Columbus, Italian explorer and navigation. The construction of canals for inland transport also began during this period though it made less progress in early modern times than sea transport. Mast, sails, and sternpost rudders were among the various inventions for maritime transport. Great Harry - Henry VIII's ship. The mariner's compass, quadrant, and forestaff were among the instruments developed for navigation and voyages. The introduction of the wheel barrow and wooden tracks for mining led to the development of railway transportation. INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Began in the 18th century, characterized by the shift from agricultural processes to urbanized and industrial processes. Arnold Toynbee is widely regarded as the one who popularized the term "Industrial Revolution." According to him, this revolution is "the substitution of competition for the medieval regulations that previously controlled the production and https://onedrive.live.com/view.aspx?resid=68832EA7DA029BE9!se9118364a34843df95d34f09c2141000&migratedtospo=true&redeem=aHR0cHM6Ly… 2/8 11/6/24, 12:48 AM OneNote distribution of wealth." England is considered to be the first country to be industrialized. Factory system - increase the production level of the yields Iron and Steel Industry Tobern Bergman, a Swedish metallurgist, discovered the important role of carbon in steel in 1750.However, even with such discovery, steel was not produced commercially until years later. Henry Bessemer and William Kelly improved the methods of manufacturing steel from iron. Robert Mushet discovered an alloy of iron that combined carbon and manganese with formed iron. Textile Industry John Kay, invented the flying shuttle (1733) to increase the output of yarn. James Hargreaves, developed the spinning jenny, also known as Saxon Wheel. It is a machine that is able to spin more than one spindle at a time. Richard Arkwright, patented a textile machine powered by water and not by hand called the water frame. Samuel Cromptom, invented the spinning mule, which combines the features of the spinning jenny and water frame. Edmund Cartwright, created the power loom in 1787 which increase the production of cotton from plantations in England. Eli Whitney, invented a machine called the cotton gin and multiplied the amount of cotton that could be cleaned. Thomas Saint, submitted a patent for a mechanized sewing machine in 1790 Barthelemy Thimonnier, a French tailor, invented the chain stitch machine in 1829. Transportation Industry Thomas Newcomen, developed the stream engine, an important invention during this period. His goal to develop an engine that would prevent flooding in Cornwall mines. Newcomen utilized the principle developed by Dennis Papin, the inventor of pressure cooker. Newcomen together with John Calley developed an engine based on the piston that was more efficient but used a lot of energy. James Watt perfected and patented the steam engine that produce the needed power without consuming too much fuel. Matthew Boulton, an industrialist, became interested in the invention and partnered with Watt. The invention of the steam engine greatly improved the ways by which people and things move from one place to another. It also paved the way for the popularization of rail transport. The first locomotive, an engine or rail transport vehicle, was developed by Richard Trevithick. It was named the New Castle, but it was unsuccessful due to its weight. George Stephenson, considered to be the "Father of Railways" designed an effective locomotive called the Blucher. Locomotive No.1 - 12 miles per hour Rocket - 30 miles per hour Liverpool and Manchester Railway company. Robert Fultron utilized the steam engine from Boulton and Watt and developed the North Rover Steamboat, which was later on called Clermont. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES Charles-Augustin de Coulomb - noteworthy progress in the field of physical science; Coulomb's Law omg pagod naq Joseph Priestley - discovered oxygen gas by collecting colorless gas from heated mercury Antoine Lavoisier - named the colorless gas, oxygen; "Father of Modern Chemistry"; published his research on the Law of Conservation Mass. John Dalton - proposed the atomic theory. States that all matter is composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms. Democritus - Atomos Leucippus - teacher of Democritus Hans Christian Oersted - discovered electric current produces magnetic fields Michael Faraday - construct his first crude electric motor in 1821 James Clerk Maxwell - formulate a theory on electromagnetic radiation. His work published in 1865, A Dynamical Theory of Electromagnetic Field, explains that electric and magnetic fields, in the forms of waves, travel through space at the speed of light. By 1873, he had published A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, a two volume discourse on electromagnetism. George Johnstone Stoney - proposed the theory that electrons have fundamental quantities of electricity. William Crookes - discovered cathode rays, he utilized the vacuum tube created by Heinrich Geissler. Eugen Goldstein - discovered positive particles called protons. William Roentgen - accidentally discovered xray. J.J Thompson (Joseph John Thomson) - discovered electron using Crooke's Tube. Henri Becquerel - discovered radioactivity Marie Curie and Pierre Curie - expounded the discovered radioactivity and discovered radioactive elements in uranium, thorium, radium, and polonium. Telegraph and wireless communication became widespread in the later part of the 19th century. Alexander Graham Bell - filed a patent for the telephone. Elisha Gray, Philip Reid, and Thomas Edison - improved and upgraded the telegraph system; "make and break" telephone. Karl Von Linne aka Carolus Linnaeus - "Father of Taxonomy" developed a system of naming organisms called the binomial nomenclature. James Hutton - proposed that there are still gradual mechanisms on Earth that explain the variability of fossils. Georges Cuvier - pioneer in paleontology, the study of fossils, proposed the Theory of Catastrophism in 1813, which hypothesized that extinctions must have been common in Earth's history. https://onedrive.live.com/view.aspx?resid=68832EA7DA029BE9!se9118364a34843df95d34f09c2141000&migratedtospo=true&redeem=aHR0cHM6Ly… 3/8 11/6/24, 12:48 AM OneNote Charles Lyell - proposed the principle of Uniformitarianism, based on Hutton's theory, which states that the same geological processes are operating today as in the past. Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck - proposed the Theory of Acquired Characteristics through Use and Disuse, also known as Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics. Charles Darwin - published his work explaining the variability of living organisms entitled On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. A few years later he published his work On the Origin of Species. Alfred Wallace - entitled On Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely from the Original Type was published in the same year. Gregor Mendel - "Father of Genetics" SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE 20TH CENTURY Max Planck - Quantum Theory Albert Einstein - Theory of relativity. Einstein also explained the phenomenon called photoelectric effect where electrons are released from materials when hit by light. Erwin Schrodinger - proposed an equation on quantum mechanics Robert Goddard - launched the first successful rocket at a farm. James Chadwick - discovered neutron in the nucleus of an atom. Oswald Avery - discovered that genes and chromosomes were carried by DNA cells Francis Crick and James Watson - proposed the model for the deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA Alexander Fleming - discovered penicillin Howard Florey and Ernst Chain - discovered antibiotics that could be mass produce. Niels Jerne - expounded the anti-body formation process. Jonas Salk - developed the first polio vaccine Albert Sabin - produced oral polio vaccine Luc Montagnier and Robert Gallo - discovered HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) which led to the awareness of AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) Ian Wilmut, Roselyn Institute - first cloned animal named Dolly Orville and Wilbur Wright - the first manned engine-powered aircraft flight. Henry Ford - first production model of the automobile. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite named Sputnik. A few years later, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) spearheaded space programs Mercury and Apollo. In 1969, Apollo 11 landed on the moon. COMPUTER AND THE AGE OF INFORMATION Charles Babbage - invention of the computer from the early systems of calculation of Charles Babbage in 1812 Claude E. Shannon - "Father of Information Technology" published A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Shannon proposed the notion that information can be encoded as a series of 1s and 0s through various devices. Warren Weaver - formulate the Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication, it is called the "mother of all models". In this model, the system begins with the information source that produces a message or a series of messages to be communicated. Transactional model - involves both the sender and the receiver as communicators who exchange messages rather that have messages come from a single sender. Interactive model - operated similarly to the transactional model; however it is often in the context of studying new media such as the internet. Pulse-code modulation (PCM) - a binary and digital way of transmitting analog-type data. Alec H. Reeves - adapted the use of PCM technology for voice communication. SIGSALY - Developed by Bell Laboratories, a secure speech system during WW2 Alan Turing - introduced Universal Turing Machine (UTM); "Father of the Modern Computer" Konrad Zuse - devised the world's first programmable computer. John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry - created the first electronic digital computer called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer. The machine was able to solve for variables one at a time until an entire system of equations is solved. Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM OR RAM) - method of storing data, became the model of the main memory systems of modern computers. Perry Crawford - a graduate student at MIT, described in his thesis, entitled Automatic Control by Arithmetic Operations that a magnetic drum could be used to store electronic digital information. A pioneering computer firm of the 1950s known as Engineering Research Associates (ERA) used parts of captured German Magnetophones to build magnetic drums and disks under the alias Project Goldberg. The mechanism called the magnetic drum memory system was used by the US Navy to decipher encryptions and was later developed for computers in US military universities in both US and UK. ERA was eventually bought by Remington Rand that later became the industry leader for electronic computers at the time. Tommy Harold Flowers - invented the world's first programmable electronic computer in 1943 called the Colossus. Howard Aiken - devised the Harvard Mark I, a general purpose electromechanical computer that is built by IBM Frederic "Freddie" Calland Williams and Tom Kilburn - created the Small-Scaled Experimental Machine (SSEM), nicknamed the Manchester Baby Computer. https://onedrive.live.com/view.aspx?resid=68832EA7DA029BE9!se9118364a34843df95d34f09c2141000&migratedtospo=true&redeem=aHR0cHM6Ly… 4/8 11/6/24, 12:48 AM OneNote William Shockley - and his team of engineers were the first to commercially mass-produce transistors. In 1957, members of his team, later called "traitorous eight", founded their own company called Fairchild Semiconductors. Engineers from this company eventually left to start their own companies, such as Advanced Micro Devices (AMB) and Intel Corporation, laying the foundation for what is known as Silicon Valley today. International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) - built the 604 Electronic Calculating Punch. It was a computer capable of performing basic mathematical operations hundreds of times faster than earlier IBM machines. 608 Model - first solid-state computer available on commercial market. Jack Kilby - credited for creating and patenting the integrated circuit (IC) chip. The IC chip was patented in 1959 under the title of a miniaturized electronic circuit. IBM Stretch Computer - first IBM computer that ran completely through transistors. Intel and Fairchild - were the first to produce 8-bit microprocessors on a commercial level. Floppy Disk - first commercially viable storage device. By 1977, floppy disks gained popularity with the introduction of Apple II. Compact Disk - improved version of floppy disk. James Russel -the beginnings of the CD can be traced to James. A system that can record digital information on an optical transparent foil lit by a high power halogen lamp. Later licensed by Sony and Philips in the 1980s Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) - created in 1969, a packet of switching network that grouped data in a message into parts or "packets" that are sent independently to other computers in the system through the most optimal route. Later replaced by the INTERNET. World Wide Web (WWW) - USED TO ACCESS THE GLOBAL NETWORK Tim Berners-Lee - created the WWW in 1989 The WWW, known simply as the web, linked CERN computers into a single network that allowed for the quick transfer and sharing information. Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) - standard language used to create websites and application (also created by Barnes lee) Uniform Resource Identifier/Uniform Resource Locator (URI/URL) - resource or address of a website. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) - the protocol that defines how information is formatted and distributed on servers and browsers. WorldWideWeb.app - first webpage editor. Internet Protocol (IP) - to properly identify each individual device connected to the internet. INTTELECTUAL REVOLUTION THAT CHANGED THE WORLD The term revolution denotes a drastic change in what is established, believed, and embraced by society. People who shared ideas were often considered as heretics or outcasts of society. One of them was Nicolaus Copernicus. An astronomer of the Renaissance period who challenged the previous notion about the cosmos, led the so-called Scientific Revolution COPERNICAN REVOLUTION Pre-Copernican System Ptolemy (104AD) - Geocentric model, also known as geocentrism, was a description that the Earth is the center of the universe. Anaximander (c. 610 - 546 BC) - a Greek philosopher who drew the first map of the world with the Earth taking the shape of a cylinder floating in the center of the universe. Pythagoras (c. 570-495BC) - a student of Anaximander, on the other hand, was the first to suggest that the Earth was sphere. He was able to come up with such conclusion by studying the constellations and the Earth's circular shadow on the moon. Plato (c. 428-348 BC) - a famous student of Socrates, and was said to be a follower of the teachings of the Pythagoreans, he believed that the cosmos is made up of matter in geometric shapes. Aristotle (c.384-322 BC) - having studied under Plato, posited that the Earth was the center of the universe with all other celestial bodies arranged in concentric crystalline sphere around it. The version of Ptolemy(100 - 170 AD) was a refined explanation behind the movements of planets. The people at the time openly accepted the idea that the Earth was unmoving while the Sun, planets, and stars revolve around it. This belief was left uncontested until Copernicus (1473-1543), considered the "Father of Modern Astrology" COPERNICAN HELIOCENTRISM Copernicus attended the University of Krakow where he studies astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, and sciences. He became the apprentice of Domenico Maria de Novara, who introduced him to studies on Johann Muller's Epitoma in Almagesium Ptolemaei (Epitome of Ptolemy's Almagest) and Disputationes adversus astrologiam divinatricem (Disputations against Divinatory Astrology). For Copernicus, the geocentric model did not explain the occasional backward movement of the planets that was regarded as the retrograde motion. Between 1507 - 1515, Copernicus laid down the principles of his heliocentric model. He proposed that the Earth was not the center of the known universe but the Sun. Copernicus finished his research in 1532 but was hesitant to publish his ideas because he knew it would be considered controversial by many. At the age of 70, Copernicus published the book De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres), which challenged the perception regarding the universe and detailed the heliocentric model. It took almost a hundred years before Copernicus's theory formally gained respect and recognition through further explorations by Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), Johannes Kepler (1571-1630), and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). https://onedrive.live.com/view.aspx?resid=68832EA7DA029BE9!se9118364a34843df95d34f09c2141000&migratedtospo=true&redeem=aHR0cHM6Ly… 5/8 11/6/24, 12:48 AM OneNote Tycho Brahe - although inspired by the Copernican model, rejected the idea that the Earth is not the center of the universe because it defies the laws of physics that were taught and accepted. He proposed his own model, dubbed as geoheliocentrism or the Tychonic System, which combine the Copernican and Ptolemaic systems. His model is geometrically identical to that od Copernicus, except that the Earth is the center fixed, with the Sun and Moon orbiting the Earth, and the other planets revolving around the Sun. Johannes Kepler - proposed his law of planetary motions in 1609, including the theory that planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun as focus. Galileo Galilei - published a book that further reinforced the claim that the Earth orbited the Sun. Using the telescope he constructed, he was able to observe the movements of the Moon, Venus and Jupiter and its satellites. He also became the first person to observe the craters on the moon. GALILEAN MOONS - largest moons of Jupiter; Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto Isaac Newton (1642-1726) - he was the first one to provide mathematical equations that could prove what Copernicus, Brahe, and Kepler tried to explain. In his work Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Newton discusses the law of motion and Kepler's laws of universal gravitation. KEY FIGURES OF THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) - a martyred Italian monk who spread Copernicus's theory of heliocentric and scientific universe. Antoine van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) - "Father of Biology" Robert Boyle (1627-1626) - a staunch supporter of the empirical method and inductive reasoning which provide that people understand truths according to their own experience Rene Descartes - a French mathematician and philosopher who practiced deductive reasoning and the scientific method in solving problems and whose idea of human consciousness dominated until the 20th century. DARWINIAN REVOLUTION Pre-Darwinian Belief Evolution, in the field of Biology, is the change of characteristics of a species over several generations. Throughout history, the theory of evolution has always been controversial because it conflicted with long-held religious beliefs such as creationism. Even scientist such as Carolus Linnaeus, a leading botanist of the 18th century whose binomial classification system is still being used today, subscribe to the Judeo-Christian version of creationism and saw their work as a mere representation of the unchanging order of life created by God. Theorization of evolution quietly came to light in England and France, thanks to a small number of scientists. Among them: Erasmus Darwin - the grandfather of well-known 19th century naturalist, Charles Darwin. Erasmus was a physician and discreet evolutionist then called transmutationist, who believed evolution occurred in living things including humans. However he lacked the idea as to what drove the change. His Zoonomia; or the Laws of Organic Life (1794-1796) - contained his theories about evolution and suggested the Earth could have been much older than the timeline based on biblical origin. His writings, later, served as Charles Darwin's springboard for his theory. DARWIN'S THEORY OF EVOLUTION Charles Darwin at the age of 16, entered Edinburgh University to study medicine. It was there that Darwin discovered his inclination toward natural sciences and worked with the transmutationist, Robert Edmond Grant, who was a radical evolutionist and a follower of the French biologist, Jean-Baptist Lamarck. Darwin was also influenced by prominent individuals in the fields of natural sciences, mainly Adam Sedgwick and John Stens Henslow. He traveled to Wales, with Adam Sedgwick, for geological research and mapped the strata in the area in the summer of 1931. on December 27, 1831, Henslow and Darwin went on a voyage to Tierra del Fuego, located in the southern tip of South America, aboard HMS beagle with Captain Robert Fitzroy. During his journey, he collected various specimens such as birds, plants, and fossils. When he returned he wrote his findings in the Journal of Researches, which was later published as part of Robert Fitzroy's narrative of the voyage entitled Zoology of the Voyage of the HMS Beagle. Darwin's account of the voyage published in 1839, commonly referred to as The Voyage of the Beagle, caught the attention of scholars and institutions. The Cambridge Network gave him a 1,000 euro treasury grant. Natural Selection - a process where species that adapt to the changing environment survive, whereas those that do not simply die out. On November 24, 1859, further explaining his theory, he published the book, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. Although there were many scientist ahead of Darwin who suggested the theory, he was the first one to publish a book with compelling evidence on the concept, earning him the title, "Father of Evolution" Darwin's findings were scrutinized by experts: Richard Owen - renowned anatomist, determined that Darwin's Uruguay River skull came from Toxodon, a hippopotamus- sized ancestor of the South American capybara, and the Pampas fossils were not rhinoceroses and mastodons but extinct armadillos, anteaters, and sloths. https://onedrive.live.com/view.aspx?resid=68832EA7DA029BE9!se9118364a34843df95d34f09c2141000&migratedtospo=true&redeem=aHR0cHM6Ly… 6/8 11/6/24, 12:48 AM OneNote John Gould - an ornithologist, disclosed that the bird specimens that Darwin brought from Galapagos were all ground finches that adapted differently. In response to Darwin's publication, the Cambridge clerics declared Darwin's theory as bestial heresy that could corrupt mankind and destroy the spirituality of man. EVOLUTIONARY SCIENCE AND PHILOSOPHY Evolutionary Biology - a subdiscipline of biological sciences that has to do with the origin of life as well as diversification and adaption of life forms through time, emerged nearly a century after Darwinian Revolution when several fields of biological research such as genetics, paleontology, taxonomy, and ecology came to be understood to be related. Julian Huxley - a leading figure of the mid-20th century in the field of evolutionary biology, who coined such relationship into a term called modern synthesis, otherwise known as Neo-Darwinism, reconciling Darwin's theory of evolution with that of Gregor Mendel's ideas on hereditary into a joint framework. Philosophy of biology - is the branch of philosophy of science that has to do with biology. It makes biology relevant to classic issues in the philosophy of science such as causation and explanation, progress, reductionism, and chance. It emerged as an independent field of philosophy between 1960s and 1970s when scientists increasingly paid attention to biology due to Neo-Darwinism and the discovery of DNA. FREUDIAN REVOLUTION Pre-Freudian Psychology Philosophical interest in the human mind, as well as behavior, could be traced back to ancient philosophers of the early civilizations in Greece, Persia, Egypt, and Asia. Wilhelm Wundt - founded the first laboratory dedicated to psychological research and conducted experimental studies Early figures in the field include: Hermann Ebbinghaus (memory), William James (pragmatism), and Ivan Pavlov (classical conditioning). Psychologist had to work within a paradigm that they inherited from 17th century philosopher, Rene Descartes. Descartes's paradigm - also known as Cartesian paradigm, consists of two components: the mind-mind problem, a view of mind in relation to itself, and the mind-body problem, a view of the mind in relation to the body. Descartes was of the position that humans are immediately aware of their own cognitive states and process out of necessity. Sigmund Freud rose to fame for his unconventional stance at that time that all cognitive processes are unconscious. FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYSIS AND STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY Sigismund "Sigmund" Freud (1836-1839) was initially interested in laboratory work concerning biological and anatomical subjects, but his interest shifted from microscopic studies to living patients. His studies and case observations of different mental illness led him to his magnum opus Psychoanalysis, a book detailed the methodology of treating mental illness, which earned him the title, "Father of Psychoanalysis" Drives and instincts are recurring concepts in Freud's theories. According to him, there are two conflicting main instincts: Eros, which refers to survival instincts involving basic hunger and thirst, and sexual impulses. Thanatos, which refers to aggressive and self-destructive instincts driven toward death. Structure of Personality - this theory describes how people act according to different systems of personality: ID - unconscious aspect of the personality that include untamed instincts. EGO - structure of personality dealing with reality. It functions as a 'referee' that balances the need of the id against the demands and expectations of society. SUPEREGO - judicial structure of the personality that holds all internalized moral standards. Superego comprised of two parts: Ego Ideal - good behavior that is learned from his or her parents or other figures of authority. Also known as ideal self Conscience Ego - leaves room for self-evaluation and criticism, is ruled by a reward and punishment system. Psychosexual Theory Development Oral: 1 year old (mouth as erogenous zone) Anal: 1-3 (emphasis on bladder and bowel control) Phallic: 3-6 (genitals as erogenous zones) Latency: 6 - puberty (sexual feelings are inactive) Genital: puberty - death (maturing sexual interest) EVOLUTION OF FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYSIS Carl Jung known for the development of analytical psychology, a branch of psychotherapy. Early supporter of Freud because of their shared belief in the unconscious. Disagreed with Freud's emphasis of sexuality in personality and introduced the concepts of collective consciousness, referring to shared social norms, as well as archetypes. Coined the terms Introvert and Extrovert Alfred Adler Previously worked with Freud, eventually drifted apart when Adler rejected Freud's theory on the psychosexual aspect of personality. Developed his own method called individual psychology. Adler's method considers a person's environment as well as the people they interact with. Erik Erickson https://onedrive.live.com/view.aspx?resid=68832EA7DA029BE9!se9118364a34843df95d34f09c2141000&migratedtospo=true&redeem=aHR0cHM6Ly… 7/8 11/6/24, 12:48 AM OneNote Accepted Freud's psychosexual theory but modified it as psychosocial theory. While Freud believed that personality only takes shape during childhood, Erickson suggested that personality develops throughout one's lifespan. In each stage of development, there is a psychosocial task that a person must master to feel a sense of competence He is known for coining the term identity crisis Erich Fromm Suggested that personality problems can be traced to conflicts between human needs and societal demands. His theory emphasized on the social and cultural influence on human personality. https://onedrive.live.com/view.aspx?resid=68832EA7DA029BE9!se9118364a34843df95d34f09c2141000&migratedtospo=true&redeem=aHR0cHM6Ly… 8/8